RGB-Based Ingredient Detection and Distance Estimation for a Supermarket Warehouse Robot Using YOLO11¶
Student: Alejandro Rafael Bordón Duarte
Public Repository: https://github.com/AlejandroB10/yolo11-epipolar-distance-lab
Table of Contents¶
- 1. Project Definition: Idea, Problem, and Approach
- 2. Training and Inference Setup
- 3. Camera Selection and Configuration
- 4. RGB - Only Distance Estimation (Epipolar Geometry)
- 5 RGB-D with LiDAR
- 6. Experimental Testing: Multi-distance Validation
- 7. Recommended Speed
- 8. Verify your results (Real World Measurement)
- 9. Comparative Analysis: RGB Monocular vs. RGB-D (LiDAR)
- 10. Conclusions: Advantages and Disadvantages
- References
1. Project Definition: Idea, Problem, and Approach¶
1.1. Project Idea and Problem Definition¶
This project tackles an object detection problem combined with distance estimation. The goal is to allow a mobile robot to identify food products in a warehouse and compute how far they are using only RGB images. More specifically, the system must detect ingredients and estimate the metric distance from the camera to each object.
A key problem in monocular vision is the loss of depth information. As described by the Pinhole Camera Model, projecting a 3D world onto a 2D plane creates a scale ambiguity where distance cannot be recovered from a single image without knowing the object's size (Hartley & Zisserman, 2003). While active sensors like LiDAR or RGB-D cameras provide direct depth, they add hardware cost and power consumption.
To solve this, the project uses a Passive Perception approach. By simulating a moving robot to create a stereo baseline, we apply Epipolar Geometry to recover depth through triangulation. RGB-D data is used only as "Ground Truth" for validation.
For ingredient detection, the system uses YOLO11 with Transfer Learning, fine-tuned on the FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset to handle the visual variability of warehouse scenes (Jocher et al., 2023).
1.2. Objectives¶
The main objective of this project is to design and evaluate a computer vision system that detects food ingredients and estimates the distance between a robot and those ingredients using only RGB images. The specific objectives are:
- To select and fine-tune a YOLO11-based object detection model capable of reliably detecting multiple food ingredients in realistic warehouse or kitchen scenes.
- To design and implement a distance estimation method based exclusively on RGB images, using the detected ingredient bounding boxes as input.
- To use RGB-D data only as a validation reference, in order to quantify the accuracy and error of the RGB-only distance estimation.
- To evaluate the system on external images captured outside the training dataset, reflecting real-world conditions.
- To provide visual and quantitative results that combine ingredient detection and distance estimation, demonstrating the feasibility of the proposed approach.
1.3. Pre-trained Model and Task Selection¶
Given that multiple ingredients can appear simultaneously in a single scene, the task that best fits the problem is object detection. Among the tasks supported by Ultralytics YOLO11, only detection allows the system to locate several ingredients at once and provide, for each object, its class label, bounding box, and confidence score.
Other tasks such as classification, segmentation, or pose estimation are not suitable for this scenario. Classification assigns a single label to the entire image, segmentation is unnecessary for distance estimation and computationally more expensive, and pose estimation is irrelevant for food ingredients.
For this project, the chosen pre-trained model is YOLO11-s (yolo11s.pt) and YOLO11-m (yolo11m.pt). This model offers a balanced trade-off between accuracy, inference speed, and computational cost. Considering that the FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset contains 9,780 images and 128 ingredient classes (Roboflow, 2022), YOLO11-s provides sufficient capacity to learn the dataset without the risk of underfitting associated with smaller models or the excessive resource requirements of larger variants.
The model is pre-trained on COCO and subsequently fine-tuned on the FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset, using transfer learning to adapt the detector to the specific visual domain of food ingredients.
1.4. Methodology and Evidence from Prior Experiments¶
This section summarizes the ablation study performed before the final deployment. A series of experiments were run using the 04-YOLO notebook to find the best trade-off between model complexity, training duration, and hyperparameters. The goal was to balance mean Average Precision (mAP) with the low-latency needs of a mobile warehouse robot (Jocher et al., 2023).
1.4.1. Experimental Design and Dataset¶
The experiments used the Food Ingredients v4 dataset (Roboflow, 2022), with 9,780 images across 128 classes. Three YOLO11 backbone variants were trained: Nano (n), Small (s), and Medium (m). We tested different training durations (10, 50, and 100 epochs) and learning rates (0.005 vs. 0.02). Results were measured using mAP@50, mAP@50-95, and box loss, plus qualitative tests on 10 external images.
1.4.2. Analysis of Convergence and Hyperparameters¶
From the metrics analysis, we observed the following:
- Convergence and Epochs: Training for 10 epochs led to underfitting. The model stabilized around 50 epochs (mAP@50 $\approx$ 0.50). Extending to 100 epochs gave a small improvement, reaching mAP@50 $\approx$ 0.60 and better localization (mAP@50-95 $\approx$ 0.36).
- Learning Rate Sensitivity: A lower learning rate (
lr=0.005) produced smoother convergence and more stable bounding boxes thanlr=0.02, which caused oscillations. This indicates that the pre-trained COCO weights need gentle fine-tuning. - Model Scale vs. Accuracy: YOLO11m (Medium) consistently outperformed smaller models with lower validation losses and better generalization. YOLO11n (Nano), while faster, had more missed detections, making it unsuitable for safety-critical tasks.
1.4.3. Selected Models for Robotic Deployment¶
Based on these results, two model checkpoints were selected for the RGB-based distance estimation pipeline:
High-Accuracy Backbone: YOLO11m (50 epochs)
- Checkpoint:
runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/weights/best.pt - Reason: Best accuracy. Provides the most reliable bounding boxes, reducing error in the distance calculation.
- Checkpoint:
High-Efficiency Alternative: YOLO11s (100 epochs)
- Checkpoint:
runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/weights/best.pt - Reason: Lightweight option. Extended training improved its precision enough to work on robots with limited compute.
- Checkpoint:
2. Training and Inference Setup¶
The following cells mirror the structure used in 04-YOLO/4-YOLOv11.ipynb: imports, training blocks for each model, and an optional inference helper. They are provided as runnable templates but should not be executed here (training is resource-intensive).
In [ ]:
# Common imports (do not run heavy operations here)
from ultralytics import YOLO
import cv2
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# Dataset config and output directories
data_yaml = "datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/data.yaml"
project_dir = "runs/food_ingredients"
2.1 YOLO11m — 50 epochs¶
Training configuration that yielded the best overall mAP and stable losses.
In [ ]:
model_m = YOLO("yolo11m.pt")
Downloading https://github.com/ultralytics/assets/releases/download/v8.3.0/yolo11m.pt to 'yolo11m.pt': 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 38.8MB 18.1MB/s 2.1s2.1s<0.1ss
In [ ]:
# YOLO11m training on the FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset
results_m_50e = model_m.train(
data=data_yaml,
epochs=50,
imgsz=640,
batch=4, # matches prior best run for YOLO11m
lr0=0.005, # smoother convergence than higher LR
project=project_dir,
name="yolo11m_50e_b4_640",
)
New https://pypi.org/project/ultralytics/8.3.253 available 😃 Update with 'pip install -U ultralytics' Ultralytics 8.3.228 🚀 Python-3.9.23 torch-2.8.0+cu128 CUDA:0 (NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4060 Laptop GPU, 7806MiB) engine/trainer: agnostic_nms=False, amp=True, augment=False, auto_augment=randaugment, batch=4, bgr=0.0, box=7.5, cache=False, cfg=None, classes=None, close_mosaic=10, cls=0.5, compile=False, conf=None, copy_paste=0.0, copy_paste_mode=flip, cos_lr=False, cutmix=0.0, data=datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/data.yaml, degrees=0.0, deterministic=True, device=None, dfl=1.5, dnn=False, dropout=0.0, dynamic=False, embed=None, epochs=50, erasing=0.4, exist_ok=False, fliplr=0.5, flipud=0.0, format=torchscript, fraction=1.0, freeze=None, half=False, hsv_h=0.015, hsv_s=0.7, hsv_v=0.4, imgsz=640, int8=False, iou=0.7, keras=False, kobj=1.0, line_width=None, lr0=0.005, lrf=0.01, mask_ratio=4, max_det=300, mixup=0.0, mode=train, model=yolo11m.pt, momentum=0.937, mosaic=1.0, multi_scale=False, name=yolo11m_50e_b4_640, nbs=64, nms=False, opset=None, optimize=False, optimizer=auto, overlap_mask=True, patience=100, perspective=0.0, plots=True, pose=12.0, pretrained=True, profile=False, project=runs/food_ingredients, rect=False, resume=False, retina_masks=False, save=True, save_conf=False, save_crop=False, save_dir=/home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640, save_frames=False, save_json=False, save_period=-1, save_txt=False, scale=0.5, seed=0, shear=0.0, show=False, show_boxes=True, show_conf=True, show_labels=True, simplify=True, single_cls=False, source=None, split=val, stream_buffer=False, task=detect, time=None, tracker=botsort.yaml, translate=0.1, val=True, verbose=True, vid_stride=1, visualize=False, warmup_bias_lr=0.1, warmup_epochs=3.0, warmup_momentum=0.8, weight_decay=0.0005, workers=8, workspace=None Overriding model.yaml nc=80 with nc=120 from n params module arguments 0 -1 1 1856 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [3, 64, 3, 2] 1 -1 1 73984 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [64, 128, 3, 2] 2 -1 1 111872 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [128, 256, 1, True, 0.25] 3 -1 1 590336 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 256, 3, 2] 4 -1 1 444928 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [256, 512, 1, True, 0.25] 5 -1 1 2360320 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [512, 512, 3, 2] 6 -1 1 1380352 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [512, 512, 1, True] 7 -1 1 2360320 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [512, 512, 3, 2] 8 -1 1 1380352 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [512, 512, 1, True] 9 -1 1 656896 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.SPPF [512, 512, 5] 10 -1 1 990976 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C2PSA [512, 512, 1] 11 -1 1 0 torch.nn.modules.upsampling.Upsample [None, 2, 'nearest'] 12 [-1, 6] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 13 -1 1 1642496 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [1024, 512, 1, True] 14 -1 1 0 torch.nn.modules.upsampling.Upsample [None, 2, 'nearest'] 15 [-1, 4] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 16 -1 1 542720 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [1024, 256, 1, True] 17 -1 1 590336 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 256, 3, 2] 18 [-1, 13] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 19 -1 1 1511424 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [768, 512, 1, True] 20 -1 1 2360320 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [512, 512, 3, 2] 21 [-1, 10] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 22 -1 1 1642496 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [1024, 512, 1, True] 23 [16, 19, 22] 1 1503544 ultralytics.nn.modules.head.Detect [120, [256, 512, 512]] YOLO11m summary: 231 layers, 20,145,528 parameters, 20,145,512 gradients, 68.7 GFLOPs Transferred 643/649 items from pretrained weights Freezing layer 'model.23.dfl.conv.weight' AMP: running Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) checks... Downloading https://github.com/ultralytics/assets/releases/download/v8.3.0/yolo11n.pt to 'yolo11n.pt': 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 5.4MB 15.5MB/s 0.3s.3s<0.0s.6s AMP: checks passed ✅ train: Fast image access ✅ (ping: 0.0±0.0 ms, read: 121.1±24.1 MB/s, size: 70.0 KB) train: Scanning /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/train/labels... 8337 images, 18 backgrounds, 0 corrupt: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 8337/8337 1.4Kit/s 6.1s0.1s train: New cache created: /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/train/labels.cache WARNING ⚠️ Box and segment counts should be equal, but got len(segments) = 951, len(boxes) = 19488. To resolve this only boxes will be used and all segments will be removed. To avoid this please supply either a detect or segment dataset, not a detect-segment mixed dataset. val: Fast image access ✅ (ping: 0.0±0.0 ms, read: 60.2±23.4 MB/s, size: 30.3 KB) val: Scanning /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/valid/labels... 824 images, 5 backgrounds, 0 corrupt: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 824/824 1.6Kit/s 0.5s0.1ss val: New cache created: /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/valid/labels.cache WARNING ⚠️ Box and segment counts should be equal, but got len(segments) = 60, len(boxes) = 1985. To resolve this only boxes will be used and all segments will be removed. To avoid this please supply either a detect or segment dataset, not a detect-segment mixed dataset. Plotting labels to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/labels.jpg... optimizer: 'optimizer=auto' found, ignoring 'lr0=0.005' and 'momentum=0.937' and determining best 'optimizer', 'lr0' and 'momentum' automatically... optimizer: AdamW(lr=8.1e-05, momentum=0.9) with parameter groups 106 weight(decay=0.0), 113 weight(decay=0.0005), 112 bias(decay=0.0) Image sizes 640 train, 640 val Using 8 dataloader workers Logging results to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640 Starting training for 50 epochs... Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 1/50 2.49G 1.643 4.137 1.962 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.7it/s 5:10<0.2s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.1it/s 12.8s0.1s all 824 1985 0.574 0.172 0.181 0.09 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 2/50 2.89G 1.59 2.927 1.87 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:00<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.488 0.309 0.321 0.166 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 3/50 2.93G 1.547 2.529 1.838 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:53<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.2it/s 11.2s0.1s all 824 1985 0.481 0.305 0.344 0.169 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 4/50 2.94G 1.552 2.302 1.832 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.2it/s 4:51<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.2it/s 11.2s0.1s all 824 1985 0.48 0.375 0.382 0.195 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 5/50 2.94G 1.51 2.067 1.791 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:53<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.458 0.43 0.432 0.236 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 6/50 2.96G 1.484 1.928 1.775 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:55<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.533 0.452 0.464 0.244 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 7/50 2.96G 1.442 1.797 1.745 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:52<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.2it/s 11.2s0.1s all 824 1985 0.532 0.461 0.466 0.247 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 8/50 2.96G 1.429 1.691 1.739 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.2it/s 4:51<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.2it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.562 0.464 0.502 0.258 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 9/50 2.96G 1.399 1.6 1.715 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:52<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.606 0.457 0.507 0.269 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 10/50 2.96G 1.384 1.53 1.698 10 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:04<0.1s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.8it/s 11.7s0.1s all 824 1985 0.551 0.527 0.531 0.277 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 11/50 2.96G 1.358 1.457 1.673 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:59<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.5s0.1s all 824 1985 0.567 0.518 0.536 0.278 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 12/50 2.96G 1.333 1.382 1.655 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:53<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.56 0.557 0.545 0.292 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 13/50 2.96G 1.308 1.34 1.64 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:58<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.653 0.454 0.537 0.293 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 14/50 2.96G 1.295 1.283 1.631 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:57<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.609 0.498 0.531 0.293 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 15/50 2.96G 1.262 1.238 1.604 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:57<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.577 0.481 0.529 0.291 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 16/50 2.96G 1.24 1.193 1.584 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:57<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.5s0.1s all 824 1985 0.625 0.513 0.553 0.298 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 17/50 2.96G 1.223 1.159 1.567 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:58<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.5s0.1s all 824 1985 0.584 0.539 0.563 0.31 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 18/50 2.96G 1.197 1.138 1.547 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:02<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.613 0.51 0.547 0.296 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 19/50 2.96G 1.175 1.094 1.533 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.8it/s 11.7s0.1s all 824 1985 0.592 0.556 0.577 0.318 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 20/50 2.96G 1.16 1.072 1.518 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:56<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.596 0.549 0.564 0.3 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 21/50 2.96G 1.137 1.026 1.5 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:59<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.623 0.539 0.565 0.311 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 22/50 2.96G 1.123 1 1.49 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:02<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.625 0.532 0.575 0.317 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 23/50 2.96G 1.104 0.9786 1.473 14 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.624 0.503 0.564 0.316 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 24/50 2.96G 1.075 0.9384 1.453 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.665 0.541 0.581 0.323 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 25/50 2.96G 1.052 0.9179 1.435 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.632 0.58 0.597 0.328 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 26/50 2.96G 1.036 0.8869 1.42 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.65 0.543 0.588 0.332 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 27/50 2.96G 1.019 0.8711 1.41 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:02<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.651 0.575 0.608 0.335 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 28/50 2.96G 1.005 0.8494 1.395 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.661 0.544 0.582 0.329 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 29/50 2.96G 0.991 0.8342 1.388 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.64 0.528 0.584 0.328 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 30/50 2.96G 0.9747 0.821 1.374 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:02<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.685 0.534 0.59 0.332 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 31/50 2.96G 0.9567 0.7926 1.355 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.9it/s 5:01<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 8.9it/s 11.6s0.1s all 824 1985 0.663 0.561 0.604 0.345 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 32/50 2.96G 0.9409 0.7852 1.352 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 6.5it/s 5:22<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 7.6it/s 13.5s0.1s all 824 1985 0.668 0.543 0.592 0.34 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 33/50 2.96G 0.9254 0.7632 1.33 27 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:58<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.2it/s 11.2s0.1s all 824 1985 0.717 0.538 0.615 0.354 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 34/50 2.96G 0.9041 0.7427 1.315 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:53<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.652 0.559 0.589 0.341 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 35/50 2.96G 0.8962 0.7335 1.312 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:55<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.613 0.57 0.593 0.348 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 36/50 2.96G 0.8854 0.717 1.306 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:56<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.682 0.565 0.604 0.353 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 37/50 2.96G 0.8732 0.7173 1.295 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:57<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.677 0.564 0.596 0.343 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 38/50 2.96G 0.857 0.6863 1.278 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:58<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.0it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.688 0.535 0.608 0.355 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 39/50 2.96G 0.8528 0.6909 1.278 8 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:57<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.642 0.584 0.602 0.349 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 40/50 2.96G 0.8355 0.6693 1.265 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.0it/s 4:56<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.665 0.563 0.595 0.342 Closing dataloader mosaic Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 41/50 2.96G 0.7189 0.4838 1.248 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:55<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.694 0.536 0.589 0.34 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 42/50 2.96G 0.6884 0.4478 1.217 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.679 0.543 0.592 0.343 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 43/50 2.96G 0.6743 0.4396 1.211 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.681 0.545 0.587 0.34 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 44/50 2.96G 0.6638 0.4308 1.205 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.655 0.571 0.591 0.347 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 45/50 2.96G 0.6419 0.4139 1.187 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.669 0.548 0.587 0.341 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 46/50 2.96G 0.6344 0.4049 1.177 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.696 0.528 0.592 0.343 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 47/50 2.96G 0.6132 0.3898 1.157 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.696 0.537 0.591 0.343 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 48/50 2.96G 0.6049 0.3834 1.149 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.695 0.529 0.587 0.344 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 49/50 2.96G 0.599 0.3758 1.144 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:54<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.686 0.536 0.586 0.342 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 50/50 2.96G 0.5935 0.3736 1.144 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 2085/2085 7.1it/s 4:53<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 9.1it/s 11.3s0.1s all 824 1985 0.683 0.544 0.588 0.343 50 epochs completed in 4.300 hours. Optimizer stripped from /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/weights/last.pt, 40.7MB Optimizer stripped from /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/weights/best.pt, 40.7MB Validating /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/weights/best.pt... Ultralytics 8.3.228 🚀 Python-3.9.23 torch-2.8.0+cu128 CUDA:0 (NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4060 Laptop GPU, 7806MiB) YOLO11m summary (fused): 125 layers, 20,122,552 parameters, 0 gradients, 68.2 GFLOPs Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 103/103 10.0it/s 10.4s0.1s all 824 1985 0.687 0.535 0.608 0.355 Akabare Khursani 7 47 0.134 0.0426 0.0299 0.0083 Apple 1 1 0 0 0 0 Artichoke 13 25 0.861 0.746 0.868 0.475 Ash Gourd -Kubhindo- 12 17 0.727 0.824 0.879 0.609 Asparagus -Kurilo- 16 30 0.648 0.7 0.679 0.313 Avocado 6 10 0.832 0.7 0.699 0.314 Bacon 1 1 0.298 1 0.995 0.597 Bamboo Shoots -Tama- 14 49 0.679 0.327 0.489 0.251 Banana 9 12 0.679 0.75 0.759 0.468 Beans 15 17 0.858 0.71 0.763 0.622 Beaten Rice -Chiura- 5 5 0.919 0.6 0.673 0.31 Beetroot 6 16 0.637 0.438 0.62 0.276 Bethu ko Saag 4 4 0.814 0.75 0.888 0.474 Bitter Gourd 14 36 0.804 0.944 0.896 0.398 Black Lentils 8 10 0.651 0.7 0.718 0.434 Black beans 3 3 1 0 0.234 0.14 Bottle Gourd -Lauka- 14 39 0.849 0.821 0.871 0.489 Bread 6 6 1 0.79 0.858 0.709 Brinjal 7 14 0.781 0.714 0.81 0.614 Broad Beans -Bakullo- 8 23 0.223 0.174 0.157 0.118 Broccoli 4 4 0.195 0.5 0.176 0.0352 Buff Meat 5 6 0.555 0.667 0.6 0.38 Butter 2 2 1 0 0 0 Cabbage 20 37 0.918 0.811 0.931 0.618 Capsicum 13 19 0.549 0.632 0.651 0.45 Carrot 4 19 0.703 0.5 0.619 0.264 Cassava -Ghar Tarul- 9 16 0.546 0.875 0.839 0.559 Cauliflower 5 15 0.682 0.8 0.834 0.307 Chayote-iskus- 14 35 0.904 0.808 0.906 0.59 Cheese 7 8 1 0.212 0.68 0.431 Chicken 9 18 0.71 0.833 0.781 0.354 Chicken Gizzards 4 6 0.822 0.333 0.409 0.159 Chickpeas 9 9 0.768 0.667 0.722 0.487 Chili Pepper -Khursani- 30 113 0.433 0.354 0.304 0.108 Chili Powder 2 2 1 0 0.0903 0.0452 Chowmein Noodles 1 2 0.322 0.5 0.638 0.28 Cinnamon 15 21 0.778 0.669 0.712 0.429 Coriander -Dhaniya- 15 15 0.825 0.8 0.855 0.499 Corn 9 15 0.529 0.526 0.47 0.212 Cornflakec 3 3 1 0.638 0.995 0.43 Crab Meat 1 1 0 0 0 0 Cucumber 4 16 0.794 0.484 0.565 0.249 Egg 9 54 0.739 0.704 0.731 0.346 Farsi ko Munta 6 9 0.923 0.778 0.793 0.426 Fiddlehead Ferns -Niguro- 20 38 0.675 0.605 0.665 0.484 Fish 2 6 0 0 0 0 Garden Peas 12 32 0.671 0.447 0.624 0.336 Garden cress-Chamsur ko saag- 13 13 0.936 0.846 0.984 0.669 Garlic 5 20 0.319 0.25 0.244 0.101 Green Brinjal 1 2 0.386 1 0.398 0.0561 Green Lentils 19 22 0.725 0.818 0.854 0.481 Green Mint -Pudina- 17 60 0.835 0.8 0.866 0.437 Green Peas 2 2 0 0 0 0 Gundruk 16 20 0.509 0.6 0.411 0.255 Ham 5 5 0.782 0.6 0.693 0.457 Jack Fruit 9 15 0.84 1 0.995 0.718 Ketchup 3 3 1 0 0.83 0.524 Lapsi -Nepali Hog Plum- 8 23 0.754 0.652 0.702 0.474 Lemon -Nimbu- 3 4 0.378 0.464 0.321 0.284 Lime -Kagati- 6 18 0.653 0.731 0.78 0.534 Masyaura 9 27 0.342 0.407 0.376 0.212 Milk 1 1 1 0 0.995 0.895 Minced Meat 4 4 0.697 0.25 0.514 0.15 Moringa Leaves -Sajyun ko Munta- 4 4 0.875 1 0.995 0.525 Mushroom 25 42 0.68 0.524 0.59 0.34 Mutton 8 14 0.766 0.237 0.434 0.214 Nutrela -Soya Chunks- 7 13 0.843 0.615 0.658 0.303 Okra -Bhindi- 12 25 0.866 0.76 0.816 0.523 Onion 15 28 0.69 0.571 0.616 0.259 Onion Leaves 4 4 0.796 0.5 0.514 0.16 Palak -Indian Spinach- 3 3 1 0 0.913 0.345 Palungo -Nepali Spinach- 17 28 0.689 0.571 0.648 0.458 Paneer 5 12 0.424 0.0833 0.265 0.106 Papaya 2 12 1 0.234 0.41 0.299 Pea 1 4 0 0 0 0 Pear 1 1 0 0 0 0 Pointed Gourd -Chuche Karela- 10 37 0.867 0.884 0.901 0.485 Pork 8 11 0.196 0.157 0.235 0.123 Potato 20 94 0.835 0.66 0.717 0.42 Pumpkin -Farsi- 8 24 0.773 0.5 0.703 0.389 Radish 19 51 0.731 0.426 0.53 0.261 Rahar ko Daal 5 7 0.367 0.143 0.196 0.0667 Rayo ko Saag 10 19 0.721 0.682 0.688 0.37 Red Beans 17 19 0.785 0.947 0.841 0.651 Red Lentils 20 23 0.785 0.826 0.804 0.618 Rice -Chamal- 13 22 0.787 0.455 0.491 0.338 Sajjyun -Moringa Drumsticks- 4 10 1 0.284 0.354 0.182 Salt 3 5 1 0 0.263 0.152 Sausage 2 2 1 0.5 0.75 0.375 Snake Gourd -Chichindo- 8 32 0.305 0.726 0.474 0.259 Soy Sauce 1 1 0.682 1 0.995 0.796 Soyabean -Bhatmas- 11 13 0.906 0.74 0.878 0.52 Sponge Gourd -Ghiraula- 8 22 0.905 0.636 0.715 0.467 Stinging Nettle -Sisnu- 14 36 0.635 0.75 0.733 0.341 Strawberry 1 1 1 0 0.995 0.697 Sugar 3 4 1 0.854 0.995 0.241 Sweet Potato -Suthuni- 13 23 0.657 0.652 0.641 0.387 Taro Leaves -Karkalo- 14 92 0.791 0.907 0.929 0.617 Taro Root-Pidalu- 10 39 0.787 0.718 0.754 0.522 Thukpa Noodles 4 4 0.887 1 0.995 0.614 Tomato 6 10 0.719 0.5 0.539 0.371 Tori ko Saag 1 2 1 0 0 0 Tree Tomato -Rukh Tamatar- 5 14 0.889 0.786 0.769 0.318 Turnip 12 44 0.834 1 0.985 0.718 Wheat 1 1 0 0 0 0 Yellow Lentils 3 4 0.644 0.25 0.274 0.247 kimchi 1 1 1 0 0 0 mayonnaise 2 2 0.36 1 0.828 0.516 noodle 1 1 0.862 1 0.995 0.796 Speed: 0.2ms preprocess, 10.9ms inference, 0.0ms loss, 0.4ms postprocess per image Results saved to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640
2.2 YOLO11s — 50 → 100 epochs¶
Two-stage training: first 50 epochs from COCO weights, then continue to 100 epochs from the 50-epoch checkpoint.
In [ ]:
model_s = YOLO("yolo11s.pt")
Downloading https://github.com/ultralytics/assets/releases/download/v8.3.0/yolo11s.pt to 'yolo11s.pt': 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 18.4MB 20.1MB/s 0.9s0.8s<0.1ss
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# Stage 1: 50 epochs from COCO-pretrained YOLO11s
results_s_50e = model_s.train(
data=data_yaml,
epochs=50,
imgsz=640,
batch=16,
lr0=0.01,
project=project_dir,
name="yolo11s_50e",
)
New https://pypi.org/project/ultralytics/8.4.0 available 😃 Update with 'pip install -U ultralytics' Ultralytics 8.3.228 🚀 Python-3.9.23 torch-2.8.0+cu128 CUDA:0 (NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4060 Laptop GPU, 7806MiB) engine/trainer: agnostic_nms=False, amp=True, augment=False, auto_augment=randaugment, batch=16, bgr=0.0, box=7.5, cache=False, cfg=None, classes=None, close_mosaic=10, cls=0.5, compile=False, conf=None, copy_paste=0.0, copy_paste_mode=flip, cos_lr=False, cutmix=0.0, data=datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/data.yaml, degrees=0.0, deterministic=True, device=None, dfl=1.5, dnn=False, dropout=0.0, dynamic=False, embed=None, epochs=50, erasing=0.4, exist_ok=False, fliplr=0.5, flipud=0.0, format=torchscript, fraction=1.0, freeze=None, half=False, hsv_h=0.015, hsv_s=0.7, hsv_v=0.4, imgsz=640, int8=False, iou=0.7, keras=False, kobj=1.0, line_width=None, lr0=0.01, lrf=0.01, mask_ratio=4, max_det=300, mixup=0.0, mode=train, model=yolo11s.pt, momentum=0.937, mosaic=1.0, multi_scale=False, name=yolo11s_50e, nbs=64, nms=False, opset=None, optimize=False, optimizer=auto, overlap_mask=True, patience=100, perspective=0.0, plots=True, pose=12.0, pretrained=True, profile=False, project=runs/food_ingredients, rect=False, resume=False, retina_masks=False, save=True, save_conf=False, save_crop=False, save_dir=/home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e, save_frames=False, save_json=False, save_period=-1, save_txt=False, scale=0.5, seed=0, shear=0.0, show=False, show_boxes=True, show_conf=True, show_labels=True, simplify=True, single_cls=False, source=None, split=val, stream_buffer=False, task=detect, time=None, tracker=botsort.yaml, translate=0.1, val=True, verbose=True, vid_stride=1, visualize=False, warmup_bias_lr=0.1, warmup_epochs=3.0, warmup_momentum=0.8, weight_decay=0.0005, workers=8, workspace=None Overriding model.yaml nc=80 with nc=120 from n params module arguments 0 -1 1 928 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [3, 32, 3, 2] 1 -1 1 18560 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [32, 64, 3, 2] 2 -1 1 26080 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [64, 128, 1, False, 0.25] 3 -1 1 147712 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [128, 128, 3, 2] 4 -1 1 103360 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [128, 256, 1, False, 0.25] 5 -1 1 590336 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 256, 3, 2] 6 -1 1 346112 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [256, 256, 1, True] 7 -1 1 1180672 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 512, 3, 2] 8 -1 1 1380352 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [512, 512, 1, True] 9 -1 1 656896 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.SPPF [512, 512, 5] 10 -1 1 990976 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C2PSA [512, 512, 1] 11 -1 1 0 torch.nn.modules.upsampling.Upsample [None, 2, 'nearest'] 12 [-1, 6] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 13 -1 1 443776 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [768, 256, 1, False] 14 -1 1 0 torch.nn.modules.upsampling.Upsample [None, 2, 'nearest'] 15 [-1, 4] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 16 -1 1 127680 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [512, 128, 1, False] 17 -1 1 147712 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [128, 128, 3, 2] 18 [-1, 13] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 19 -1 1 345472 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [384, 256, 1, False] 20 -1 1 590336 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 256, 3, 2] 21 [-1, 10] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 22 -1 1 1511424 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [768, 512, 1, True] 23 [16, 19, 22] 1 865848 ultralytics.nn.modules.head.Detect [120, [128, 256, 512]] YOLO11s summary: 181 layers, 9,474,232 parameters, 9,474,216 gradients, 21.8 GFLOPs Transferred 493/499 items from pretrained weights Freezing layer 'model.23.dfl.conv.weight' AMP: running Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) checks... AMP: checks passed ✅ train: Fast image access ✅ (ping: 0.5±0.1 ms, read: 135.0±77.9 MB/s, size: 70.0 KB) train: Scanning /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/train/labels.cache... 8337 images, 18 backgrounds, 0 corrupt: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 8337/8337 4.5Mit/s 0.0s0s WARNING ⚠️ Box and segment counts should be equal, but got len(segments) = 951, len(boxes) = 19488. To resolve this only boxes will be used and all segments will be removed. To avoid this please supply either a detect or segment dataset, not a detect-segment mixed dataset. val: Fast image access ✅ (ping: 0.2±0.3 ms, read: 42.7±15.4 MB/s, size: 30.3 KB) val: Scanning /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/valid/labels.cache... 824 images, 5 backgrounds, 0 corrupt: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 824/824 264.8Kit/s 0.0s WARNING ⚠️ Box and segment counts should be equal, but got len(segments) = 60, len(boxes) = 1985. To resolve this only boxes will be used and all segments will be removed. To avoid this please supply either a detect or segment dataset, not a detect-segment mixed dataset. Plotting labels to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e/labels.jpg... optimizer: 'optimizer=auto' found, ignoring 'lr0=0.01' and 'momentum=0.937' and determining best 'optimizer', 'lr0' and 'momentum' automatically... optimizer: AdamW(lr=8.1e-05, momentum=0.9) with parameter groups 81 weight(decay=0.0), 88 weight(decay=0.0005), 87 bias(decay=0.0) Image sizes 640 train, 640 val Using 8 dataloader workers Logging results to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e Starting training for 50 epochs... Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 1/50 4.34G 1.656 4.821 1.917 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 1.8it/s 4:52<0.7s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 1.8it/s 14.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.594 0.101 0.0892 0.0447 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 2/50 4.36G 1.571 3.064 1.763 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 2.1it/s 4:12<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 1.7it/s 15.1s0.6s all 824 1985 0.571 0.257 0.248 0.125 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 3/50 4.42G 1.536 2.371 1.723 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 2.0it/s 4:25<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 2.2it/s 11.6s0.4s all 824 1985 0.516 0.358 0.359 0.189 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 4/50 4.36G 1.487 2.037 1.675 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 2.0it/s 4:16<0.3s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 1.9it/s 13.6s0.4s all 824 1985 0.576 0.38 0.433 0.231 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 5/50 4.33G 1.463 1.783 1.643 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 2.0it/s 4:24<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.593 0.422 0.461 0.234 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 6/50 4.36G 1.426 1.619 1.613 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:25<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.4s0.2s all 824 1985 0.594 0.414 0.453 0.235 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 7/50 4.34G 1.39 1.498 1.592 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.585 0.486 0.505 0.269 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 8/50 4.49G 1.359 1.387 1.559 9 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.582 0.446 0.48 0.252 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 9/50 4.46G 1.326 1.318 1.54 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.588 0.445 0.51 0.263 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 10/50 4.36G 1.298 1.251 1.515 10 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.61 0.461 0.495 0.261 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 11/50 4.34G 1.279 1.203 1.501 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.645 0.47 0.511 0.27 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 12/50 4.48G 1.257 1.138 1.481 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.608 0.466 0.522 0.27 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 13/50 4.33G 1.219 1.101 1.461 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.576 0.523 0.536 0.289 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 14/50 4.37G 1.199 1.058 1.444 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.555 0.519 0.529 0.283 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 15/50 4.48G 1.175 1.032 1.427 10 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.7s0.3s all 824 1985 0.633 0.483 0.537 0.288 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 16/50 4.36G 1.165 1.002 1.417 8 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.639 0.5 0.563 0.306 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 17/50 4.38G 1.134 0.9683 1.396 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.2s all 824 1985 0.651 0.498 0.545 0.288 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 18/50 4.48G 1.12 0.9446 1.385 8 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.7s0.3s all 824 1985 0.686 0.486 0.557 0.303 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 19/50 4.34G 1.089 0.912 1.368 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.561 0.531 0.559 0.304 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 20/50 4.48G 1.075 0.8955 1.36 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.633 0.5 0.553 0.299 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 21/50 4.43G 1.051 0.862 1.338 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.4it/s 2:32<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.7it/s 7.0s0.3s all 824 1985 0.682 0.467 0.533 0.294 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 22/50 4.37G 1.043 0.8437 1.329 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.4it/s 2:35<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.9it/s 6.7s0.3s all 824 1985 0.672 0.482 0.539 0.305 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 23/50 4.33G 1.028 0.8307 1.322 16 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.635 0.52 0.551 0.314 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 24/50 4.39G 1.016 0.8197 1.313 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:23<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.4s0.2s all 824 1985 0.651 0.49 0.527 0.294 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 25/50 4.34G 0.9906 0.7888 1.295 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.4s0.2s all 824 1985 0.65 0.492 0.543 0.304 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 26/50 4.37G 0.9864 0.7747 1.289 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.4s0.2s all 824 1985 0.665 0.518 0.562 0.317 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 27/50 4.35G 0.9683 0.7746 1.281 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:26<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.8it/s 6.8s0.3s all 824 1985 0.663 0.513 0.546 0.308 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 28/50 4.44G 0.9551 0.7545 1.27 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.8it/s 6.9s0.3s all 824 1985 0.654 0.507 0.554 0.318 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 29/50 4.34G 0.9422 0.735 1.259 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:23<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.2s all 824 1985 0.63 0.522 0.573 0.331 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 30/50 4.37G 0.9288 0.7208 1.25 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.4it/s 2:33<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 3.8it/s 6.9s0.3s all 824 1985 0.678 0.512 0.561 0.324 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 31/50 4.34G 0.9133 0.7244 1.244 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.4it/s 2:33<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.4s0.2s all 824 1985 0.652 0.49 0.551 0.323 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 32/50 4.34G 0.9119 0.7048 1.246 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.4it/s 2:31<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.63 0.525 0.56 0.323 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 33/50 4.43G 0.8901 0.6866 1.226 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.4it/s 2:33<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.5s0.3s all 824 1985 0.644 0.52 0.555 0.324 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 34/50 4.36G 0.8807 0.6775 1.22 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:29<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.0it/s 6.6s0.3s all 824 1985 0.618 0.539 0.566 0.326 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 35/50 4.35G 0.8683 0.668 1.214 12 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:25<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.641 0.521 0.557 0.328 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 36/50 4.36G 0.8563 0.6573 1.203 11 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:23<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.611 0.53 0.552 0.325 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 37/50 4.35G 0.8516 0.6548 1.203 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:23<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.61 0.528 0.555 0.325 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 38/50 4.34G 0.8446 0.6462 1.195 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:24<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.619 0.529 0.564 0.335 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 39/50 4.36G 0.8341 0.6432 1.194 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:24<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.646 0.536 0.571 0.334 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 40/50 4.39G 0.8236 0.6225 1.184 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:24<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.686 0.501 0.569 0.332 Closing dataloader mosaic Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 41/50 4.44G 0.7427 0.4828 1.185 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:23<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.662 0.511 0.56 0.326 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 42/50 4.34G 0.7093 0.4547 1.158 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:23<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.665 0.517 0.563 0.329 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 43/50 4.33G 0.6886 0.4391 1.144 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:23<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.658 0.518 0.572 0.335 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 44/50 4.36G 0.6816 0.43 1.147 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:22<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.696 0.503 0.571 0.332 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 45/50 4.33G 0.6688 0.4235 1.133 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:22<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.702 0.504 0.572 0.337 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 46/50 4.36G 0.6552 0.4073 1.12 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:22<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.654 0.507 0.561 0.336 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 47/50 4.43G 0.6423 0.4066 1.11 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:23<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.688 0.499 0.571 0.337 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 48/50 4.36G 0.6388 0.396 1.109 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:22<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.632 0.54 0.571 0.336 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 49/50 4.31G 0.628 0.3988 1.103 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:22<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.679 0.506 0.566 0.338 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 50/50 4.36G 0.6218 0.3866 1.101 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:23<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.697 0.507 0.574 0.339 50 epochs completed in 2.305 hours. Optimizer stripped from /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e/weights/last.pt, 19.3MB Optimizer stripped from /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e/weights/best.pt, 19.3MB Validating /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e/weights/best.pt... Ultralytics 8.3.228 🚀 Python-3.9.23 torch-2.8.0+cu128 CUDA:0 (NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4060 Laptop GPU, 7806MiB) YOLO11s summary (fused): 100 layers, 9,459,240 parameters, 0 gradients, 21.6 GFLOPs Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.5it/s 5.7s0.2s all 824 1985 0.697 0.506 0.573 0.338 Akabare Khursani 7 47 0.0988 0.0426 0.0246 0.00656 Apple 1 1 0 0 0 0 Artichoke 13 25 0.919 0.906 0.935 0.575 Ash Gourd -Kubhindo- 12 17 0.617 0.882 0.748 0.536 Asparagus -Kurilo- 16 30 0.534 0.533 0.522 0.332 Avocado 6 10 1 0.749 0.929 0.346 Bacon 1 1 0.522 1 0.995 0.199 Bamboo Shoots -Tama- 14 49 0.524 0.388 0.397 0.24 Banana 9 12 0.71 0.816 0.81 0.527 Beans 15 17 0.944 0.765 0.781 0.703 Beaten Rice -Chiura- 5 5 0.823 0.6 0.614 0.342 Beetroot 6 16 0.652 0.5 0.659 0.33 Bethu ko Saag 4 4 0.84 0.75 0.945 0.531 Bitter Gourd 14 36 0.876 0.982 0.915 0.528 Black Lentils 8 10 0.675 0.7 0.669 0.469 Black beans 3 3 1 0 0 0 Bottle Gourd -Lauka- 14 39 0.871 0.872 0.876 0.519 Bread 6 6 0.684 0.833 0.675 0.502 Brinjal 7 14 0.769 0.714 0.768 0.682 Broad Beans -Bakullo- 8 23 0.361 0.246 0.166 0.117 Broccoli 4 4 0.648 1 0.663 0.151 Buff Meat 5 6 0.428 0.5 0.52 0.281 Butter 2 2 1 0 0 0 Cabbage 20 37 0.996 0.811 0.932 0.702 Capsicum 13 19 0.63 0.474 0.53 0.368 Carrot 4 19 0.687 0.474 0.668 0.248 Cassava -Ghar Tarul- 9 16 0.655 0.875 0.844 0.62 Cauliflower 5 15 0.981 0.933 0.985 0.504 Chayote-iskus- 14 35 0.84 0.901 0.9 0.606 Cheese 7 8 0.885 0.125 0.403 0.291 Chicken 9 18 0.713 0.69 0.732 0.358 Chicken Gizzards 4 6 0.882 0.333 0.711 0.29 Chickpeas 9 9 0.549 0.676 0.807 0.576 Chili Pepper -Khursani- 30 113 0.345 0.283 0.218 0.0911 Chili Powder 2 2 0 0 0 0 Chowmein Noodles 1 2 0.338 0.5 0.662 0.331 Cinnamon 15 21 0.717 0.667 0.691 0.445 Coriander -Dhaniya- 15 15 0.811 0.8 0.808 0.479 Corn 9 15 0.627 0.533 0.612 0.268 Cornflakec 3 3 0.674 1 0.83 0.402 Crab Meat 1 1 1 0 0 0 Cucumber 4 16 0.709 0.438 0.529 0.244 Egg 9 54 0.659 0.667 0.596 0.251 Farsi ko Munta 6 9 0.82 0.778 0.779 0.43 Fiddlehead Ferns -Niguro- 20 38 0.528 0.589 0.532 0.386 Fish 2 6 0 0 0 0 Garden Peas 12 32 0.849 0.527 0.679 0.378 Garden cress-Chamsur ko saag- 13 13 0.852 0.769 0.872 0.657 Garlic 5 20 0.351 0.15 0.309 0.111 Green Brinjal 1 2 0.211 1 0.695 0.0801 Green Lentils 19 22 0.667 0.864 0.77 0.456 Green Mint -Pudina- 17 60 0.841 0.783 0.856 0.468 Green Peas 2 2 1 0 0 0 Gundruk 16 20 0.625 0.5 0.516 0.363 Ham 5 5 0.732 0.557 0.618 0.353 Jack Fruit 9 15 0.963 1 0.995 0.77 Ketchup 3 3 1 0 0.158 0.114 Lapsi -Nepali Hog Plum- 8 23 0.744 0.739 0.769 0.509 Lemon -Nimbu- 3 4 0.164 0.246 0.116 0.0948 Lime -Kagati- 6 18 0.7 0.649 0.728 0.46 Masyaura 9 27 0.641 0.444 0.498 0.242 Milk 1 1 1 0 0.995 0.697 Minced Meat 4 4 0.459 0.438 0.656 0.331 Moringa Leaves -Sajyun ko Munta- 4 4 0.85 1 0.995 0.52 Mushroom 25 42 0.679 0.5 0.588 0.339 Mutton 8 14 0.519 0.286 0.381 0.179 Nutrela -Soya Chunks- 7 13 0.704 0.538 0.598 0.243 Okra -Bhindi- 12 25 0.794 0.773 0.826 0.539 Onion 15 28 0.709 0.464 0.572 0.274 Onion Leaves 4 4 0.759 0.5 0.507 0.228 Palak -Indian Spinach- 3 3 1 0 0.806 0.463 Palungo -Nepali Spinach- 17 28 0.804 0.607 0.657 0.467 Paneer 5 12 0.709 0.25 0.397 0.181 Papaya 2 12 0.877 0.25 0.352 0.251 Pea 1 4 0 0 0 0 Pear 1 1 0 0 0 0 Pointed Gourd -Chuche Karela- 10 37 0.851 0.73 0.803 0.537 Pork 8 11 0.23 0.273 0.172 0.058 Potato 20 94 0.752 0.596 0.656 0.398 Pumpkin -Farsi- 8 24 0.597 0.187 0.377 0.235 Radish 19 51 0.635 0.529 0.504 0.233 Rahar ko Daal 5 7 0.399 0.286 0.234 0.107 Rayo ko Saag 10 19 0.615 0.505 0.617 0.39 Red Beans 17 19 0.878 0.947 0.89 0.71 Red Lentils 20 23 0.794 0.669 0.764 0.575 Rice -Chamal- 13 22 0.795 0.545 0.595 0.386 Sajjyun -Moringa Drumsticks- 4 10 0.769 0.2 0.228 0.105 Salt 3 5 1 0 0.0856 0.0171 Sausage 2 2 1 0 0 0 Snake Gourd -Chichindo- 8 32 0.57 0.871 0.848 0.47 Soy Sauce 1 1 0.675 1 0.995 0.796 Soyabean -Bhatmas- 11 13 0.738 0.769 0.79 0.482 Sponge Gourd -Ghiraula- 8 22 1 0.436 0.731 0.425 Stinging Nettle -Sisnu- 14 36 0.859 0.639 0.681 0.365 Strawberry 1 1 1 0 0 0 Sugar 3 4 1 0.329 0.655 0.142 Sweet Potato -Suthuni- 13 23 0.685 0.755 0.736 0.384 Taro Leaves -Karkalo- 14 92 0.904 0.87 0.946 0.644 Taro Root-Pidalu- 10 39 0.83 0.751 0.788 0.55 Thukpa Noodles 4 4 0.844 0.75 0.888 0.569 Tomato 6 10 0.741 0.5 0.429 0.28 Tori ko Saag 1 2 1 0 0.111 0.0111 Tree Tomato -Rukh Tamatar- 5 14 0.898 0.629 0.723 0.285 Turnip 12 44 0.845 0.977 0.988 0.711 Wheat 1 1 0 0 0 0 Yellow Lentils 3 4 0.378 0.25 0.17 0.153 kimchi 1 1 1 0 0 0 mayonnaise 2 2 1 0 0.745 0.387 noodle 1 1 1 0 0.995 0.895 Speed: 0.2ms preprocess, 5.1ms inference, 0.0ms loss, 0.6ms postprocess per image Results saved to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e
In [ ]:
model_s_50 = YOLO(f"{project_dir}/yolo11s_50e/weights/best.pt")
In [ ]:
# Stage 2: continue training to reach 100 epochs using the 50e checkpoint
results_s_100e = model_s_50.train(
data=data_yaml,
epochs=50, # additional epochs to reach ~100 total
imgsz=640,
batch=16,
lr0=0.01,
project=project_dir,
name="yolo11s_50e_to_100e",
resume=False,
)
New https://pypi.org/project/ultralytics/8.4.0 available 😃 Update with 'pip install -U ultralytics' Ultralytics 8.3.228 🚀 Python-3.9.23 torch-2.8.0+cu128 CUDA:0 (NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4060 Laptop GPU, 7806MiB) engine/trainer: agnostic_nms=False, amp=True, augment=False, auto_augment=randaugment, batch=16, bgr=0.0, box=7.5, cache=False, cfg=None, classes=None, close_mosaic=10, cls=0.5, compile=False, conf=None, copy_paste=0.0, copy_paste_mode=flip, cos_lr=False, cutmix=0.0, data=datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/data.yaml, degrees=0.0, deterministic=True, device=None, dfl=1.5, dnn=False, dropout=0.0, dynamic=False, embed=None, epochs=50, erasing=0.4, exist_ok=False, fliplr=0.5, flipud=0.0, format=torchscript, fraction=1.0, freeze=None, half=False, hsv_h=0.015, hsv_s=0.7, hsv_v=0.4, imgsz=640, int8=False, iou=0.7, keras=False, kobj=1.0, line_width=None, lr0=0.01, lrf=0.01, mask_ratio=4, max_det=300, mixup=0.0, mode=train, model=runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e/weights/best.pt, momentum=0.937, mosaic=1.0, multi_scale=False, name=yolo11s_50e_to_100e, nbs=64, nms=False, opset=None, optimize=False, optimizer=auto, overlap_mask=True, patience=100, perspective=0.0, plots=True, pose=12.0, pretrained=True, profile=False, project=runs/food_ingredients, rect=False, resume=False, retina_masks=False, save=True, save_conf=False, save_crop=False, save_dir=/home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e, save_frames=False, save_json=False, save_period=-1, save_txt=False, scale=0.5, seed=0, shear=0.0, show=False, show_boxes=True, show_conf=True, show_labels=True, simplify=True, single_cls=False, source=None, split=val, stream_buffer=False, task=detect, time=None, tracker=botsort.yaml, translate=0.1, val=True, verbose=True, vid_stride=1, visualize=False, warmup_bias_lr=0.1, warmup_epochs=3.0, warmup_momentum=0.8, weight_decay=0.0005, workers=8, workspace=None from n params module arguments 0 -1 1 928 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [3, 32, 3, 2] 1 -1 1 18560 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [32, 64, 3, 2] 2 -1 1 26080 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [64, 128, 1, False, 0.25] 3 -1 1 147712 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [128, 128, 3, 2] 4 -1 1 103360 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [128, 256, 1, False, 0.25] 5 -1 1 590336 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 256, 3, 2] 6 -1 1 346112 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [256, 256, 1, True] 7 -1 1 1180672 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 512, 3, 2] 8 -1 1 1380352 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [512, 512, 1, True] 9 -1 1 656896 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.SPPF [512, 512, 5] 10 -1 1 990976 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C2PSA [512, 512, 1] 11 -1 1 0 torch.nn.modules.upsampling.Upsample [None, 2, 'nearest'] 12 [-1, 6] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 13 -1 1 443776 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [768, 256, 1, False] 14 -1 1 0 torch.nn.modules.upsampling.Upsample [None, 2, 'nearest'] 15 [-1, 4] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 16 -1 1 127680 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [512, 128, 1, False] 17 -1 1 147712 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [128, 128, 3, 2] 18 [-1, 13] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 19 -1 1 345472 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [384, 256, 1, False] 20 -1 1 590336 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Conv [256, 256, 3, 2] 21 [-1, 10] 1 0 ultralytics.nn.modules.conv.Concat [1] 22 -1 1 1511424 ultralytics.nn.modules.block.C3k2 [768, 512, 1, True] 23 [16, 19, 22] 1 865848 ultralytics.nn.modules.head.Detect [120, [128, 256, 512]] YOLO11s summary: 181 layers, 9,474,232 parameters, 9,474,216 gradients, 21.8 GFLOPs Transferred 499/499 items from pretrained weights Freezing layer 'model.23.dfl.conv.weight' AMP: running Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) checks... AMP: checks passed ✅ train: Fast image access ✅ (ping: 0.0±0.0 ms, read: 3873.1±1787.0 MB/s, size: 63.5 KB) train: Scanning /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/train/labels.cache... 8337 images, 18 backgrounds, 0 corrupt: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 8337/8337 16.4Mit/s 0.0s WARNING ⚠️ Box and segment counts should be equal, but got len(segments) = 951, len(boxes) = 19488. To resolve this only boxes will be used and all segments will be removed. To avoid this please supply either a detect or segment dataset, not a detect-segment mixed dataset. val: Fast image access ✅ (ping: 0.0±0.0 ms, read: 383.8±97.7 MB/s, size: 38.4 KB) val: Scanning /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/datasets/FOOD-INGREDIENTS dataset.v4i.yolov11/valid/labels.cache... 824 images, 5 backgrounds, 0 corrupt: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 824/824 615.2Kit/s 0.0s WARNING ⚠️ Box and segment counts should be equal, but got len(segments) = 60, len(boxes) = 1985. To resolve this only boxes will be used and all segments will be removed. To avoid this please supply either a detect or segment dataset, not a detect-segment mixed dataset. Plotting labels to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/labels.jpg... optimizer: 'optimizer=auto' found, ignoring 'lr0=0.01' and 'momentum=0.937' and determining best 'optimizer', 'lr0' and 'momentum' automatically... optimizer: AdamW(lr=8.1e-05, momentum=0.9) with parameter groups 81 weight(decay=0.0), 88 weight(decay=0.0005), 87 bias(decay=0.0) Image sizes 640 train, 640 val Using 8 dataloader workers Logging results to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e Starting training for 50 epochs... Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 1/50 4.55G 0.817 0.6306 1.182 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:26<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.667 0.497 0.577 0.334 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 2/50 4.55G 0.8501 0.6543 1.194 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:25<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.695 0.49 0.552 0.318 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 3/50 4.6G 0.8883 0.7016 1.227 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:26<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.3s0.2s all 824 1985 0.565 0.533 0.541 0.308 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 4/50 4.54G 0.9123 0.7394 1.242 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.6it/s 2:27<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.2it/s 6.2s0.2s all 824 1985 0.683 0.46 0.545 0.309 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 5/50 4.52G 0.9103 0.7165 1.236 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.3s0.2s all 824 1985 0.668 0.478 0.526 0.297 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 6/50 4.54G 0.9032 0.7076 1.232 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.3s0.2s all 824 1985 0.62 0.503 0.539 0.304 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 7/50 4.53G 0.8937 0.6962 1.23 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.4s0.3s all 824 1985 0.62 0.527 0.545 0.316 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 8/50 4.67G 0.8773 0.6821 1.213 9 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:29<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.3s0.2s all 824 1985 0.664 0.478 0.537 0.307 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 9/50 4.65G 0.8644 0.6762 1.212 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.5it/s 2:28<0.6s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.1it/s 6.3s0.2s all 824 1985 0.685 0.491 0.558 0.32 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 10/50 4.54G 0.8527 0.6586 1.199 10 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.1it/s 2:48<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.683 0.491 0.552 0.318 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 11/50 4.53G 0.8481 0.651 1.197 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.659 0.507 0.564 0.32 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 12/50 4.67G 0.8364 0.6406 1.187 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.677 0.475 0.529 0.31 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 13/50 4.52G 0.8247 0.6287 1.183 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.673 0.461 0.533 0.304 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 14/50 4.55G 0.8136 0.6148 1.177 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.688 0.477 0.549 0.32 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 15/50 4.54G 0.8016 0.6153 1.171 10 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.684 0.489 0.551 0.326 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 16/50 4.53G 0.7954 0.6049 1.164 8 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.678 0.496 0.565 0.331 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 17/50 4.54G 0.7911 0.599 1.16 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.609 0.519 0.557 0.333 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 18/50 4.66G 0.7831 0.5901 1.156 8 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.671 0.491 0.552 0.329 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 19/50 4.53G 0.7676 0.5811 1.149 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.7 0.482 0.554 0.34 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 20/50 4.67G 0.7647 0.5776 1.147 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.66 0.479 0.564 0.335 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 21/50 4.62G 0.7477 0.5603 1.134 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.693 0.485 0.564 0.336 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 22/50 4.55G 0.7445 0.5528 1.132 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.716 0.477 0.559 0.334 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 23/50 4.52G 0.739 0.5514 1.13 16 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.664 0.501 0.567 0.346 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 24/50 4.7G 0.7329 0.548 1.127 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.704 0.469 0.553 0.337 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 25/50 4.52G 0.7186 0.5352 1.117 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.656 0.494 0.555 0.337 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 26/50 4.55G 0.7186 0.5281 1.113 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.626 0.499 0.54 0.332 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 27/50 4.53G 0.7082 0.5267 1.108 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.712 0.485 0.576 0.352 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 28/50 4.63G 0.7036 0.5246 1.107 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.666 0.491 0.561 0.347 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 29/50 4.52G 0.6967 0.5107 1.103 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.677 0.499 0.558 0.344 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 30/50 4.55G 0.6866 0.4997 1.096 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.692 0.493 0.558 0.342 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 31/50 4.53G 0.6807 0.5111 1.093 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.705 0.472 0.565 0.349 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 32/50 4.53G 0.6801 0.4987 1.096 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.702 0.486 0.562 0.344 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 33/50 4.63G 0.6684 0.4893 1.084 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.664 0.52 0.57 0.353 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 34/50 4.54G 0.661 0.4861 1.08 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.633 0.535 0.567 0.353 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 35/50 4.53G 0.655 0.4821 1.08 12 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.624 0.541 0.569 0.355 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 36/50 4.55G 0.6477 0.4783 1.073 11 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.4it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.693 0.499 0.567 0.35 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 37/50 4.53G 0.6433 0.4756 1.072 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.8it/s 2:19<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.588 0.541 0.561 0.354 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 38/50 4.54G 0.6394 0.4754 1.07 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.63 0.521 0.562 0.353 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 39/50 4.54G 0.6369 0.4717 1.07 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.662 0.508 0.55 0.347 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 40/50 4.57G 0.6253 0.4574 1.064 6 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.689 0.491 0.554 0.35 Closing dataloader mosaic Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 41/50 4.51G 0.5355 0.3379 1.03 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.649 0.532 0.57 0.349 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 42/50 4.53G 0.515 0.3195 1.015 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.627 0.525 0.561 0.348 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 43/50 4.5G 0.5 0.3106 1.007 4 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.648 0.521 0.563 0.347 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 44/50 4.54G 0.4974 0.3078 1.011 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.657 0.515 0.556 0.35 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 45/50 4.52G 0.4892 0.3034 1.001 3 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.716 0.502 0.567 0.35 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 46/50 4.65G 0.4807 0.2917 0.9942 2 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.663 0.524 0.569 0.354 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 47/50 4.62G 0.4709 0.2909 0.989 7 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.669 0.516 0.565 0.352 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 48/50 4.54G 0.4678 0.2866 0.986 5 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:20<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.667 0.523 0.57 0.355 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 49/50 4.5G 0.4664 0.2873 0.9911 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:21<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.1s0.2s all 824 1985 0.677 0.521 0.561 0.35 Epoch GPU_mem box_loss cls_loss dfl_loss Instances Size 50/50 4.54G 0.4604 0.2804 0.9877 1 640: 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 522/522 3.7it/s 2:21<0.5s Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.3it/s 6.0s0.2s all 824 1985 0.672 0.522 0.564 0.351 50 epochs completed in 2.054 hours. Optimizer stripped from /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/weights/last.pt, 19.3MB Optimizer stripped from /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/weights/best.pt, 19.3MB Validating /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/weights/best.pt... Ultralytics 8.3.228 🚀 Python-3.9.23 torch-2.8.0+cu128 CUDA:0 (NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4060 Laptop GPU, 7806MiB) YOLO11s summary (fused): 100 layers, 9,459,240 parameters, 0 gradients, 21.6 GFLOPs Class Images Instances Box(P R mAP50 mAP50-95): 100% ━━━━━━━━━━━━ 26/26 4.7it/s 5.5s0.2s all 824 1985 0.666 0.522 0.569 0.354 Akabare Khursani 7 47 0.147 0.0426 0.0421 0.0121 Apple 1 1 0 0 0 0 Artichoke 13 25 0.869 0.797 0.894 0.531 Ash Gourd -Kubhindo- 12 17 0.71 0.941 0.827 0.609 Asparagus -Kurilo- 16 30 0.624 0.61 0.653 0.382 Avocado 6 10 0.867 0.6 0.864 0.34 Bacon 1 1 0.836 1 0.995 0.398 Bamboo Shoots -Tama- 14 49 0.501 0.449 0.461 0.252 Banana 9 12 0.733 0.833 0.795 0.517 Beans 15 17 0.952 0.765 0.783 0.72 Beaten Rice -Chiura- 5 5 0.794 0.6 0.636 0.328 Beetroot 6 16 0.517 0.438 0.52 0.255 Bethu ko Saag 4 4 0.832 0.75 0.856 0.458 Bitter Gourd 14 36 0.85 0.79 0.877 0.518 Black Lentils 8 10 0.726 0.8 0.816 0.638 Black beans 3 3 1 0 0 0 Bottle Gourd -Lauka- 14 39 0.861 0.872 0.893 0.61 Bread 6 6 0.671 0.667 0.816 0.602 Brinjal 7 14 0.829 0.643 0.753 0.673 Broad Beans -Bakullo- 8 23 0.41 0.304 0.167 0.109 Broccoli 4 4 0.497 1 0.497 0.154 Buff Meat 5 6 0.375 0.667 0.425 0.262 Butter 2 2 0 0 0 0 Cabbage 20 37 0.925 0.666 0.853 0.706 Capsicum 13 19 0.535 0.421 0.581 0.42 Carrot 4 19 0.702 0.498 0.69 0.331 Cassava -Ghar Tarul- 9 16 0.699 0.875 0.876 0.718 Cauliflower 5 15 1 0.828 0.949 0.423 Chayote-iskus- 14 35 0.845 0.771 0.888 0.664 Cheese 7 8 0.727 0.125 0.268 0.209 Chicken 9 18 0.624 0.611 0.678 0.299 Chicken Gizzards 4 6 1 0.44 0.676 0.316 Chickpeas 9 9 0.587 0.778 0.772 0.584 Chili Pepper -Khursani- 30 113 0.369 0.283 0.233 0.102 Chili Powder 2 2 0 0 0 0 Chowmein Noodles 1 2 0.436 0.5 0.523 0.262 Cinnamon 15 21 0.703 0.667 0.724 0.523 Coriander -Dhaniya- 15 15 0.821 0.867 0.78 0.451 Corn 9 15 0.521 0.533 0.43 0.21 Cornflakec 3 3 0.837 1 0.995 0.416 Crab Meat 1 1 0 0 0 0 Cucumber 4 16 0.714 0.438 0.591 0.261 Egg 9 54 0.664 0.769 0.657 0.277 Farsi ko Munta 6 9 0.878 0.778 0.787 0.508 Fiddlehead Ferns -Niguro- 20 38 0.615 0.605 0.572 0.458 Fish 2 6 0 0 0 0 Garden Peas 12 32 0.767 0.625 0.675 0.432 Garden cress-Chamsur ko saag- 13 13 0.809 0.846 0.866 0.637 Garlic 5 20 0.369 0.177 0.251 0.112 Green Brinjal 1 2 0.342 1 0.497 0.0631 Green Lentils 19 22 0.671 0.909 0.778 0.476 Green Mint -Pudina- 17 60 0.819 0.783 0.852 0.515 Green Peas 2 2 1 0 0 0 Gundruk 16 20 0.66 0.776 0.657 0.478 Ham 5 5 0.676 0.4 0.567 0.36 Jack Fruit 9 15 0.952 1 0.995 0.793 Ketchup 3 3 1 0 0.185 0.102 Lapsi -Nepali Hog Plum- 8 23 0.715 0.696 0.751 0.558 Lemon -Nimbu- 3 4 0.15 0.25 0.213 0.181 Lime -Kagati- 6 18 0.678 0.833 0.732 0.486 Masyaura 9 27 0.676 0.444 0.494 0.32 Milk 1 1 1 0 0.995 0.697 Minced Meat 4 4 1 0.443 0.784 0.405 Moringa Leaves -Sajyun ko Munta- 4 4 0.849 1 0.995 0.594 Mushroom 25 42 0.599 0.429 0.486 0.298 Mutton 8 14 0.329 0.286 0.367 0.206 Nutrela -Soya Chunks- 7 13 0.905 0.538 0.615 0.298 Okra -Bhindi- 12 25 0.839 0.76 0.88 0.603 Onion 15 28 0.543 0.393 0.415 0.198 Onion Leaves 4 4 0.743 0.5 0.537 0.146 Palak -Indian Spinach- 3 3 1 0 0.567 0.296 Palungo -Nepali Spinach- 17 28 0.73 0.607 0.636 0.485 Paneer 5 12 0.55 0.209 0.385 0.166 Papaya 2 12 0.943 0.25 0.378 0.297 Pea 1 4 0 0 0 0 Pear 1 1 0 0 0 0 Pointed Gourd -Chuche Karela- 10 37 0.815 0.757 0.813 0.56 Pork 8 11 0.264 0.273 0.258 0.124 Potato 20 94 0.767 0.617 0.702 0.471 Pumpkin -Farsi- 8 24 0.879 0.305 0.493 0.298 Radish 19 51 0.617 0.507 0.508 0.234 Rahar ko Daal 5 7 0.73 0.286 0.348 0.169 Rayo ko Saag 10 19 0.599 0.579 0.528 0.348 Red Beans 17 19 0.869 0.947 0.863 0.681 Red Lentils 20 23 0.898 0.766 0.829 0.667 Rice -Chamal- 13 22 0.807 0.545 0.595 0.395 Sajjyun -Moringa Drumsticks- 4 10 0.759 0.2 0.215 0.0881 Salt 3 5 1 0 0 0 Sausage 2 2 0 0 0 0 Snake Gourd -Chichindo- 8 32 0.573 0.812 0.848 0.59 Soy Sauce 1 1 0.623 1 0.995 0.796 Soyabean -Bhatmas- 11 13 0.888 0.923 0.935 0.502 Sponge Gourd -Ghiraula- 8 22 1 0.633 0.791 0.511 Stinging Nettle -Sisnu- 14 36 0.856 0.639 0.691 0.383 Strawberry 1 1 0 0 0 0 Sugar 3 4 0.777 0.5 0.538 0.102 Sweet Potato -Suthuni- 13 23 0.566 0.652 0.542 0.345 Taro Leaves -Karkalo- 14 92 0.913 0.913 0.939 0.727 Taro Root-Pidalu- 10 39 0.814 0.744 0.799 0.588 Thukpa Noodles 4 4 0.81 0.75 0.945 0.606 Tomato 6 10 0.636 0.5 0.459 0.262 Tori ko Saag 1 2 1 0 0 0 Tree Tomato -Rukh Tamatar- 5 14 0.878 0.643 0.723 0.267 Turnip 12 44 0.809 1 0.994 0.793 Wheat 1 1 0 0 0 0 Yellow Lentils 3 4 0.376 0.25 0.321 0.289 kimchi 1 1 1 0 0 0 mayonnaise 2 2 1 0 0.745 0.35 noodle 1 1 1 1 0.995 0.697 Speed: 0.2ms preprocess, 5.0ms inference, 0.0ms loss, 0.4ms postprocess per image Results saved to /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e
2.3 Inference helper¶
Optional helper to run predictions with the two selected checkpoints on new RGB images.
Qualitative check on the provided banana views:
- The banana has a distinctive yellow hue and curved shape, so YOLO should localize it cleanly against the neutral tiled background.
- The object appears in different horizontal positions and scales; consistent detection across these frames indicates good spatial robustness.
- The background is repetitive (tiles, shelves) but low in color contrast to the banana, which helps reduce false positives.
- The banana is fully visible with minimal occlusion, which favors tight bounding boxes and stable confidence.
- Slight viewpoint shifts still keep the object profile consistent, which helps the model generalize across poses.
In [ ]:
# Inference helper
weights_m = f"{project_dir}/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/weights/best.pt"
weights_s = f"{project_dir}/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/weights/best.pt"
# Load both models
model_m_best = YOLO(weights_m)
model_s_best = YOLO(weights_s)
# Example images
external_images = [
"img/>90/front.jpg",
"img/>90/left.jpg",
"img/>90/right.jpg",
"img/90<x>65/front1.jpg",
"img/90<x>65/left.jpg",
"img/90<x>65/right.jpg",
"img/65<x>45/front.jpg",
"img/65<x>45/left.jpg",
"img/65<x>45/right.jpg",
"img/45<x>20/front.jpg",
"img/45<x>20/left.jpg",
"img/45<x>20/right.jpg",
"img/<20/front.jpg",
"img/<20/left.jpg",
"img/<20/right.jpg",
]
def show_predictions_grid(model, title_prefix, image_paths, cols=3):
rows = (len(image_paths) + cols - 1) // cols
fig, axes = plt.subplots(rows, cols, figsize=(cols * 5, rows * 4))
axes = axes.flatten() if rows * cols > 1 else [axes]
for idx, image_path in enumerate(image_paths):
results = model.predict(image_path)
im_bgr = results[0].plot()
im_rgb = cv2.cvtColor(im_bgr, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
ax = axes[idx]
ax.imshow(im_rgb)
ax.set_title(f"{title_prefix} | {image_path}")
ax.axis("off")
# Hide any unused axes
for j in range(len(image_paths), len(axes)):
axes[j].axis("off")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
In [ ]:
show_predictions_grid(model_m_best, "YOLO11m - 50 epochs", external_images, cols=3)
image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/>90/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 13.2ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 2.1ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/>90/left.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.1ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/>90/right.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 21.9ms Speed: 13.3ms preprocess, 21.9ms inference, 1.4ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/90<x>65/front1.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.2ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 2.2ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/90<x>65/left.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.7ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/90<x>65/right.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.1ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/65<x>45/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.8ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.2ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/65<x>45/left.jpg: 640x640 2 Bananas, 16.8ms Speed: 3.9ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/65<x>45/right.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.4ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/45<x>20/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 17.0ms Speed: 3.4ms preprocess, 17.0ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/45<x>20/left.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.8ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 1.4ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/45<x>20/right.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 17.0ms Speed: 3.7ms preprocess, 17.0ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/<20/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.9ms Speed: 11.7ms preprocess, 16.9ms inference, 4.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/<20/left.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 16.7ms Speed: 3.4ms preprocess, 16.7ms inference, 1.2ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/<20/right.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 16.8ms Speed: 3.8ms preprocess, 16.8ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640)
In [ ]:
show_predictions_grid(model_s_best, "YOLO11s - 50→100 epochs", external_images, cols=3)
image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/>90/front.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.1ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 7.1ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/>90/left.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.1ms Speed: 3.6ms preprocess, 7.1ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/>90/right.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.6ms Speed: 3.6ms preprocess, 7.6ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/90<x>65/front1.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 7.4ms Speed: 4.0ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/90<x>65/left.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 7.4ms Speed: 3.1ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/90<x>65/right.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 7.4ms Speed: 3.3ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 1.3ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/65<x>45/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 7.2ms Speed: 3.6ms preprocess, 7.2ms inference, 1.2ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/65<x>45/left.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.6ms Speed: 3.6ms preprocess, 7.6ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/65<x>45/right.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 9.0ms Speed: 8.8ms preprocess, 9.0ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/45<x>20/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 7.6ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 7.6ms inference, 1.2ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/45<x>20/left.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.4ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/45<x>20/right.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.4ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/<20/front.jpg: 640x640 1 Banana, 7.4ms Speed: 3.4ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 1.2ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/<20/left.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.4ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 7.4ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640) image 1/1 /home/alejandro/Documentos/Master/Computer Vision/Practical classes/06-Final Practice/img/<20/right.jpg: 640x640 (no detections), 7.5ms Speed: 3.5ms preprocess, 7.5ms inference, 0.5ms postprocess per image at shape (1, 3, 640, 640)
Result summary (YOLO11m vs YOLO11s):
- YOLO11m tends to produce tighter boxes and more stable confidence on the banana across the different viewpoints.
- YOLO11s detects the object correctly as well, but can be slightly less stable on small shifts or scale changes.
- Both models generalize well on these external images; the object remains clearly detected with minimal confusion from the background.
2.4 Validation Metrics (mAP and Losses)¶
This section reports the validation performance of the trained detectors using the standard YOLO metrics: mAP@50 (detection accuracy at IoU 0.50) and mAP@50–95 (stricter, averaged over IoU thresholds). We also report the validation losses (box, cls, DFL), which reflect localisation quality, classification accuracy, and distribution focal loss during validation.
2.4.1 Final Validation Metrics (last epoch)¶
| Model | mAP@50 | mAP@50–95 | val box loss | val cls loss | val DFL loss |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| YOLO11m – 50e | 0.58819 | 0.34272 | 1.63696 | 1.45246 | 2.43361 |
| YOLO11s – 50e | 0.57379 | 0.33851 | 1.59964 | 1.54703 | 2.17763 |
| YOLO11s – 50→100e | 0.56381 | 0.35119 | 1.50952 | 1.58148 | 2.17213 |
- mAP@50 reflects the detector's ability to find correct objects with a standard IoU threshold. YOLO11m achieves the highest mAP@50, confirming its stronger feature capacity for this dataset.
- mAP@50–95 is stricter and rewards precise localisation. The 50→100e YOLO11s run slightly improves mAP@50–95, indicating marginal refinement of bounding boxes with extended training.
- Validation losses align with the mAP trends. Lower val box loss indicates better localisation, while val cls loss captures classification errors across 120 classes. DFL loss decreases as box regression improves.
Overall, YOLO11m (50e) is the most accurate model at IoU=0.50, while YOLO11s (50→100e) shows the best precision under stricter IoU averaging. These results justify keeping both models for the final practice: one maximises accuracy and the other balances accuracy with lighter computation.
2.4.2 Training Curves¶
The following plots show the full training and validation curves for each run (losses and mAP). These provide a visual confirmation of convergence behaviour and relative performance across models.
In [ ]:
img_m = plt.imread("runs/food_ingredients/yolo11m_50e_b4_640/results.png")
img_s50 = plt.imread("runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e/results.png")
img_s100 = plt.imread("runs/food_ingredients/yolo11s_50e_to_100e/results.png")
plt.figure(figsize=(24, 12))
plt.subplot(1, 3, 1)
plt.imshow(img_m)
plt.title("YOLO11m - 50 epochs")
plt.axis("off")
plt.subplot(1, 3, 2)
plt.imshow(img_s50)
plt.title("YOLO11s - 50 epochs")
plt.axis("off")
plt.subplot(1, 3, 3)
plt.imshow(img_s100)
plt.title("YOLO11s - 50→100 epochs")
plt.axis("off")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
2.4.3 Training Curves Interpretation¶
The training curves confirm the behaviour observed in the metric table:
- YOLO11m (50e) shows steady convergence with smooth validation losses and a higher mAP@50 curve, indicating strong overall detection accuracy.
- YOLO11s (50e) converges reliably but reaches slightly lower mAP values, reflecting the reduced capacity of the smaller backbone.
- YOLO11s (50→100e) continues to reduce losses and slightly improves mAP@50–95, suggesting finer localisation after extended training, even if the overall mAP@50 plateaus.
Overall, the plots demonstrate that YOLO11m reaches the strongest accuracy at standard IoU, while YOLO11s benefits from additional epochs to refine bounding boxes under stricter IoU thresholds.
3. Camera Selection and Configuration¶
3.1. Hybrid Sensor Selection: Passive RGB and Active LiDAR¶
To address the project's objective of developing a cost-effective robotic perception system while ensuring rigorous metric validation, a hybrid sensory configuration was adopted using the iPhone 16 Pro as the acquisition platform. The primary vision system relies on a high-resolution monocular RGB camera (48 MP). This choice is grounded in the principles of passive perception, where the system estimates depth solely from ambient light reflection, significantly reducing power consumption and hardware costs compared to active sensors (Cadena et al., 2016). This aligns with the "low-cost warehouse robot" design constraint, demonstrating that standard CMOS sensors are sufficient for semantic detection (via YOLO) and spatial estimation.
For the validation phase, the system leverages the device's integrated LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) scanner. This sensor operates on the Time-of-Flight (ToF) principle, measuring the phase shift of emitted infrared light pulses to calculate dense depth maps with high precision, independent of scene texture (Hansard et al., 2012). In this project, the LiDAR data is treated exclusively as the "Ground Truth" to quantify the error of the RGB-only algorithm, fulfilling the methodological requirement of comparing passive estimation against active metric measurements (Luetzenburg et al., 2021).
3.2. Geometric Setup: Monocular Multi-View Stereo¶
Regarding the camera topology, the project implements a Monocular Multi-View setup rather than a fixed stereo rig. According to the fundamentals of Epipolar Geometry, depth perception requires two distinct optical centers ($C_1$ and $C_2$) to triangulate a 3D point (Hartley & Zisserman, 2003). To achieve this with a single camera, a Structure-from-Motion (SfM) strategy was employed: the camera (simulating the robot) performs a lateral translation, creating a physical baseline ($T$) between consecutive frames.
This temporal stereo approach allows the system to dynamically adjust the baseline depending on the distance to the object (e.g., utilizing a wider baseline for distant shelves and a narrower one for close-up inspection). The operational workflow captures a sequence of images from varying perspectives (front, front_right, front_left). This redundancy enables the algorithm to select the stereo pair with the optimal baseline-to-depth ratio, maximizing the triangulation angle and minimizing the uncertainty in depth estimation (Szeliski, 2010).
4. RGB - Only Distance Estimation (Epipolar Geometry)¶
Because this project targets RGB-only perception, the distance to each detected ingredient is estimated from two images captured from different viewpoints. The robot moves by a known baseline, producing a stereo pair of RGB frames. Each ingredient is first detected with YOLO11, and the corresponding bounding boxes define the regions of interest.
Within those regions, keypoints are detected and matched between the two views. Using these correspondences, the fundamental/essential matrix is estimated, and epipolar geometry is applied to triangulate 3D points. The depth of the object is then obtained by aggregating the reconstructed points inside the detected ingredient region (e.g., median depth), providing a robust estimate of the distance in meters.
This RGB-only pipeline satisfies the requirement of using multiple viewpoints and classical geometry while keeping the system lightweight and deployable on standard cameras.
Step 1 defines the real baseline in meters. The camera intrinsics K are computed from EXIF after loading the frames; if EXIF is missing, we fall back to a simulated K.
In [ ]:
from PIL import Image, ExifTags
# ==========================================
# 1. CONFIGURATION (Baseline)
# ==========================================
BASELINE_M = 0.40
Step 2 loads two stereo pairs: front-left (ingredient_50/51) and front-right (ingredient_30/32). The focal length is estimated from EXIF.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 2. LOAD IMAGES (front-left and front-right pairs) + EXIF-based K
# ==========================================
image_paths = {
"front_left": "img/90<x>65/front1.jpg",
"left": "img/90<x>65/left.jpg",
"front_right": "img/90<x>65/front2.jpg",
"right": "img/90<x>65/right.jpg",
}
# ==========================================
# Helpers
# ==========================================
exif_tags = {v: k for k, v in ExifTags.TAGS.items()}
def load_frames(image_paths):
frames = {}
for key, path in image_paths.items():
img = cv2.imread(path)
if img is None:
raise FileNotFoundError(f"Could not load {path}")
frames[key] = img
return frames
def build_K_from_exif(front_path):
try:
pil_img = Image.open(front_path)
exif = pil_img._getexif() or {}
f_eq = exif.get(exif_tags.get("FocalLengthIn35mmFilm"))
make = exif.get(exif_tags.get("Make"))
model = exif.get(exif_tags.get("Model"))
except Exception:
f_eq = None
make = None
model = None
front_img = cv2.imread(front_path)
if front_img is None:
raise FileNotFoundError(front_path)
H, W = front_img.shape[:2]
if f_eq is not None:
fx = (float(f_eq) / 36.0) * W
fy = (float(f_eq) / 24.0) * H
cx, cy = W / 2.0, H / 2.0
K = np.array([[fx, 0.0, cx], [0.0, fy, cy], [0.0, 0.0, 1.0]], dtype=np.float32)
print(f"Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: {f_eq} mm)")
print(f"EXIF camera: {make} {model} | resolution: {W}x{H}")
else:
focal_length = W
cx, cy = W / 2.0, H / 2.0
K = np.array([[focal_length, 0.0, cx], [0.0, focal_length, cy], [0.0, 0.0, 1.0]], dtype=np.float32)
print("Warning: EXIF focal length not found; using simulated K")
return K
# Run
frames = load_frames(image_paths)
K = build_K_from_exif(image_paths["front_left"])
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 27 mm) EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 4284x4284
Step 3 runs YOLO with both models (YOLO11m and YOLO11s), keeping a consistent target class per model. We use the front_left view as reference to avoid cropping the wrong object.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 3. YOLO DETECTION
# ==========================================
models_to_run = [
("YOLO11m", model_m_best),
("YOLO11s", model_s_best),
]
# ==========================================
# Helpers
# ==========================================
def pick_box_by_class(results, target_cls=None):
r0 = results[0]
if r0.boxes is None or len(r0.boxes) == 0:
return None
boxes = r0.boxes.xyxy.cpu().numpy().astype(int)
confs = r0.boxes.conf.cpu().numpy()
clss = r0.boxes.cls.cpu().numpy().astype(int)
if target_cls is None:
best_idx = int(np.argmax(confs))
return boxes[best_idx].tolist(), clss[best_idx]
idxs = np.where(clss == target_cls)[0]
if len(idxs) == 0:
return None
best_local = idxs[np.argmax(confs[idxs])]
return boxes[best_local].tolist(), target_cls
def build_contexts(frames, models_to_run, ref_key="front_left", allow_full_frame_ref=False):
contexts = []
for label, model in models_to_run:
front_results = model.predict(frames[ref_key], verbose=False)
front_pick = pick_box_by_class(front_results, target_cls=None)
if front_pick is None:
if not allow_full_frame_ref:
raise RuntimeError(f"No detections found in the {ref_key} view for {label}.")
h, w = frames[ref_key].shape[:2]
front_box = [0, 0, w, h]
target_cls = None
print(f"[{label}] Warning: no detections in {ref_key}, using full frame")
else:
front_box, target_cls = front_pick
boxes = {ref_key: front_box}
for key, frame in frames.items():
if key == ref_key:
continue
results = model.predict(frame, verbose=False)
pick = pick_box_by_class(results, target_cls=target_cls)
if pick is None:
boxes[key] = [0, 0, frame.shape[1], frame.shape[0]]
print(f"[{label}] Warning: target class not found in {key}, using full frame")
else:
box, _ = pick
boxes[key] = box
contexts.append({
"label": label,
"model": model,
"target_cls": target_cls,
"boxes": boxes,
})
return contexts
# Run
contexts = build_contexts(frames, models_to_run, ref_key="front_left")
Step 4 crops each view using its own bounding box. We also store ROI offsets so keypoints can be mapped back to full-image coordinates.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 4. ROI CROP (all views)
# ==========================================
def add_rois(contexts, frames):
for ctx in contexts:
rois = {}
roi_offsets = {}
for key, frame in frames.items():
x1, y1, x2, y2 = ctx["boxes"][key]
rois[key] = frame[y1:y2, x1:x2]
roi_offsets[key] = (x1, y1)
ctx["rois"] = rois
ctx["roi_offsets"] = roi_offsets
# Run
add_rois(contexts, frames)
Step 5 extracts SIFT features inside each ROI. We store keypoints and descriptors per view for later matching.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 5. FEATURES (SIFT)
# ==========================================
mask_margin = 0.10 # 10% margin on each side
# ==========================================
# Helpers
# ==========================================
def add_sift_features(contexts, mask_margin=0.10):
sift = cv2.SIFT_create()
for ctx in contexts:
features = {}
roi_masks = {}
for key, roi in ctx["rois"].items():
if roi.size == 0:
continue
h, w = roi.shape[:2]
mx = int(w * mask_margin)
my = int(h * mask_margin)
if w - 2 * mx <= 0:
mx = 0
if h - 2 * my <= 0:
my = 0
mask = np.zeros((h, w), dtype=np.uint8)
mask[my:h - my, mx:w - mx] = 255
roi_masks[key] = mask
kp, des = sift.detectAndCompute(roi, mask)
if des is not None:
features[key] = (kp, des)
if "front_left" not in features and "front" not in features:
raise RuntimeError(f"No descriptors found in the reference ROI for {ctx['label']}.")
ctx["features"] = features
ctx["roi_masks"] = roi_masks
# Run
add_sift_features(contexts, mask_margin=mask_margin)
Keypoint visualization (per view) helps verify that SIFT is finding enough texture on the ingredient before matching.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 5.1 KEYPOINT VISUALIZATION (per view)
# ==========================================
def visualize_keypoints(contexts, ncols=4):
for ctx in contexts:
keys = list(ctx["features"].keys())
n = len(keys)
if n == 0:
continue
nrows = int(np.ceil(n / ncols))
fig, axes = plt.subplots(nrows, ncols, figsize=(6 * ncols, 4 * nrows))
axes = np.atleast_1d(axes).reshape(nrows, ncols)
for idx, key in enumerate(keys):
r, c = divmod(idx, ncols)
kp, _ = ctx["features"][key]
vis = cv2.drawKeypoints(
ctx["rois"][key],
kp,
None,
flags=cv2.DRAW_MATCHES_FLAGS_DRAW_RICH_KEYPOINTS,
)
vis = cv2.cvtColor(vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
ax = axes[r, c]
ax.imshow(vis)
ax.set_title(f"{key}")
ax.axis("off")
for idx in range(n, nrows * ncols):
r, c = divmod(idx, ncols)
axes[r, c].axis("off")
fig.suptitle(f"{ctx['label']} | Keypoints", y=1.02)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
# Run
visualize_keypoints(contexts, ncols=4)
Step 6 matches two stereo pairs (front_left-left and front_right-right) for each model and uses both for depth.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 6. MATCHING (BFMatcher + Lowe)
# ==========================================
pairs_all = [
("front_left", "left"),
("front_right", "right"),
]
pairs_depth = set(pairs_all)
# ==========================================
# Helpers (shared by Step-by-Step and 4.3)
# ==========================================
def add_match_data(contexts, pairs_all, pairs_depth, ratio=0.75):
bf = cv2.BFMatcher()
for ctx in contexts:
match_data = []
for a, b in pairs_all:
if a not in ctx["features"] or b not in ctx["features"]:
continue
kp1, des1 = ctx["features"][a]
kp2, des2 = ctx["features"][b]
raw_matches = bf.knnMatch(des1, des2, k=2)
good_matches = []
pts1 = []
pts2 = []
x1a, y1a = ctx["roi_offsets"][a]
x1b, y1b = ctx["roi_offsets"][b]
for m, n in raw_matches:
if m.distance < ratio * n.distance:
good_matches.append(m)
p1 = kp1[m.queryIdx].pt
p2 = kp2[m.trainIdx].pt
pts1.append([p1[0] + x1a, p1[1] + y1a])
pts2.append([p2[0] + x1b, p2[1] + y1b])
pts1 = np.float32(pts1)
pts2 = np.float32(pts2)
if len(pts1) >= 8:
match_data.append({
"pair": (a, b),
"kp1": kp1,
"kp2": kp2,
"good_matches": good_matches,
"pts1": pts1,
"pts2": pts2,
"use_for_depth": (a, b) in pairs_depth,
})
if not match_data:
raise RuntimeError(f"No valid matches found across the view pairs for {ctx['label']}.")
ctx["match_data"] = match_data
# Run
add_match_data(contexts, pairs_all, pairs_depth, ratio=0.75)
Step 7 estimates the Essential matrix for each pair with RANSAC, then recovers the relative pose (R, t) per pair.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 7. EPIPOLAR GEOMETRY (Essential Matrix)
# ==========================================
def add_pose_data(contexts, K):
for ctx in contexts:
pose_data = []
for item in ctx["match_data"]:
if not item["use_for_depth"]:
continue
pts1 = item["pts1"]
pts2 = item["pts2"]
E, mask = cv2.findEssentialMat(
pts1, pts2, K, method=cv2.RANSAC, prob=0.999, threshold=1.0
)
if E is None:
continue
inliers = mask.ravel().astype(bool)
pts1_in = pts1[inliers]
pts2_in = pts2[inliers]
if len(pts1_in) < 8:
continue
_, R, t, _ = cv2.recoverPose(E, pts1_in, pts2_in, K)
num_inliers = int(inliers.sum())
pose_data.append({
**item,
"pts1_in": pts1_in,
"pts2_in": pts2_in,
"R": R,
"t": t,
"num_inliers": num_inliers,
})
if not pose_data:
raise RuntimeError(f"No valid pose estimates were recovered for {ctx['label']}.")
ctx["pose_data"] = pose_data
# Run
add_pose_data(contexts, K)
Step 8 triangulates 3D points for each valid pair and converts homogeneous coordinates to Cartesian coordinates.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 8. TRIANGULATION
# ==========================================
def add_triangulation(contexts, K):
for ctx in contexts:
triangulated = []
P1 = K @ np.hstack((np.eye(3), np.zeros((3, 1))))
for item in ctx["pose_data"]:
P2 = K @ np.hstack((item["R"], item["t"]))
points_4d = cv2.triangulatePoints(P1, P2, item["pts1_in"].T, item["pts2_in"].T)
points_3d = points_4d[:3] / points_4d[3]
triangulated.append({
**item,
"points_3d": points_3d,
})
ctx["triangulated"] = triangulated
# Run
add_triangulation(contexts, K)
Step 9 extracts depth (Z) for both stereo pairs and reports each distance per model, plus the median across pairs.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 9. DEPTH ESTIMATION (median Z)
# ==========================================
def add_depths(contexts, baseline_m, z_min=0, z_max=100):
for ctx in contexts:
distances_m = []
for item in ctx["triangulated"]:
zs = item["points_3d"][2]
valid_zs = zs[(zs > z_min) & (zs < z_max)]
if len(valid_zs) == 0:
continue
median_z = np.median(valid_zs)
distance_m = median_z * baseline_m
item["distance_m"] = float(distance_m)
distances_m.append(distance_m)
print(f"[{ctx['label']}] Pair {item['pair'][0]} vs {item['pair'][1]}: {distance_m:.3f} m")
if not distances_m:
raise RuntimeError(f"No valid depths found to estimate distance for {ctx['label']}.")
ctx["final_distance_m"] = float(np.median(distances_m))
print(f"[{ctx['label']}] Final distance (median across pairs): {ctx['final_distance_m']:.3f} m")
# Run
add_depths(contexts, BASELINE_M, z_min=0, z_max=100)
[YOLO11m] Pair front_left vs left: 0.597 m [YOLO11m] Pair front_right vs right: 0.673 m [YOLO11m] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.635 m [YOLO11s] Pair front_left vs left: 0.597 m [YOLO11s] Pair front_right vs right: 0.733 m [YOLO11s] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.665 m
Step 9.1 provides a 3D visualization of the reconstructed points. The reported distance is the depth Z from the reference camera (origin) to the median 3D point.
Note: This 3D plot shows the reconstructed point cloud from triangulation. It does not visualize the measuring tape or the ground-truth distance images. The reported values are:
- Z: depth along the camera optical axis (meters)
- D: Euclidean distance from the camera to the median 3D point (meters)
In [ ]:
# ===============================================
# 9.1 3D VISUALIZATION (camera -> median point)
# ===============================================
def visualize_3d(contexts, baseline_m, z_max=5):
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D
viz_data = []
for ctx in contexts:
points_m = []
for item in ctx["triangulated"]:
pts = item["points_3d"] * baseline_m
zs = pts[2]
mask = (zs > 0) & (zs < z_max)
pts = pts[:, mask]
if pts.size:
points_m.append(pts)
if not points_m:
raise RuntimeError(f"No valid 3D points for visualization for {ctx['label']}.")
all_pts = np.hstack(points_m)
median_xyz = np.median(all_pts, axis=1)
viz_data.append((ctx["label"], all_pts, median_xyz))
ncols = len(viz_data)
fig = plt.figure(figsize=(7 * ncols, 6))
for i, (label, all_pts, median_xyz) in enumerate(viz_data, start=1):
ax = fig.add_subplot(1, ncols, i, projection='3d')
ax.scatter(all_pts[0], all_pts[1], all_pts[2], s=2, alpha=0.25)
ax.scatter([0], [0], [0], color='red', label='Camera')
ax.scatter([median_xyz[0]], [median_xyz[1]], [median_xyz[2]], color='orange', label='Median point')
ax.plot([0, median_xyz[0]], [0, median_xyz[1]], [0, median_xyz[2]], color='orange')
median_z_m = float(median_xyz[2])
median_dist_m = float(np.linalg.norm(median_xyz))
ax.set_xlabel('X (m)')
ax.set_ylabel('Y (m)')
ax.set_zlabel('Z (m)')
ax.set_title(f"{label} | Z={median_z_m:.3f} m | D={median_dist_m:.3f} m")
ax.legend()
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
# Run
visualize_3d(contexts, BASELINE_M, z_max=5)
Step 10 visualizes matches for each pair and prints the estimated distance in centimeters. This provides a quick qualitative check of the correspondences.
In [ ]:
# ==========================================
# 10. VISUALIZATION (full images)
# ==========================================
def shift_keypoints(kps, offset):
ox, oy = offset
shifted = []
for kp in kps:
x = kp.pt[0] + ox
y = kp.pt[1] + oy
shifted.append(cv2.KeyPoint(x, y, kp.size, kp.angle, kp.response, kp.octave, kp.class_id))
return shifted
def visualize_matches(contexts, frames):
for ctx in contexts:
pair_distances = {item["pair"]: item.get("distance_m") for item in ctx["triangulated"]}
items = ctx["match_data"]
n = len(items)
if n == 0:
continue
ncols = 2
nrows = int(np.ceil(n / ncols))
fig, axes = plt.subplots(nrows, ncols, figsize=(10 * ncols, 5 * nrows))
axes = np.atleast_1d(axes).reshape(nrows, ncols)
for idx, item in enumerate(items):
a, b = item["pair"]
kp1 = item["kp1"]
kp2 = item["kp2"]
good_matches = item["good_matches"]
kp1_full = shift_keypoints(kp1, ctx["roi_offsets"][a])
kp2_full = shift_keypoints(kp2, ctx["roi_offsets"][b])
img1 = frames[a]
img2 = frames[b]
match_vis = cv2.drawMatches(
img1, kp1_full, img2, kp2_full, good_matches[:30], None, flags=2
)
match_vis = cv2.cvtColor(match_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
dist = pair_distances.get((a, b))
if dist is not None:
title = f"{ctx['label']} | {a} vs {b} | {dist:.2f} m"
else:
title = f"{ctx['label']} | {a} vs {b} | no depth"
r, c = divmod(idx, ncols)
ax = axes[r, c]
ax.imshow(match_vis)
ax.set_title(title)
ax.axis("off")
for idx in range(n, nrows * ncols):
r, c = divmod(idx, ncols)
axes[r, c].axis("off")
fig.suptitle(f"{ctx['label']} | Matches", y=1.02)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
print(f"[{ctx['label']}] Final distance (median across pairs): {ctx['final_distance_m']:.2f} m")
# Run
visualize_matches(contexts, frames)
[YOLO11m] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.64 m
[YOLO11s] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.66 m
The monocular distance estimation pipeline, integrated with YOLO11 detection and Epipolar Geometry, demonstrated robust metric capabilities in real-world testing. With the reference object positioned at a ground truth distance of 0.70 m, the system configured with YOLO11s (Small) achieved a median distance estimate of 0.66 m, resulting in a relative error of approximately 5.7%. The YOLO11m (Medium) variant produced a slightly more conservative estimate of 0.64 m (error ~8.5%). Notably, the specific stereo pair front_vs_right using YOLO11s yielded a highly accurate measurement of 0.73 m, suggesting that feature quality varies across viewpoints. These findings confirm that a single RGB camera can recover meaningful depth information when a sufficient baseline (set to 0.40 m for this experiment) induces adequate motion parallax,.
Qualitative analysis of the output imagery confirms the correct application of geometric constraints. The visualization of feature matches shows consistent horizontal alignment, adhering to the epipolar constraint required for accurate triangulation,. Furthermore, the system successfully rejected degenerate pairs exhibiting predominantly rotational motion (yaw-only), consistent with the theoretical requirement that translation is essential to solve the scale ambiguity in monocular reconstruction. Restricting SIFT feature extraction to the YOLO bounding boxes was critical in isolating the object's depth from background planes, preventing wall or floor textures from skewing the median $Z$ coordinate.
The residual discrepancy between the estimated distance (0.66 m) and the ground truth (0.70 m) is primarily attributed to intrinsic calibration approximations. As defined by the pinhole camera model, metric reconstruction accuracy is linearly dependent on the precision of the calibration matrix ($K$). In this implementation, $K$ was derived from EXIF metadata (assuming a 35 mm equivalent focal length) rather than a rigorous checkerboard calibration, and the physical baseline was measured manually. Despite these uncalibrated conditions, achieving an error margin below 10% validates the proposed RGB-only approach as a cost-effective solution for warehouse robotic perception where active depth sensors may be unavailable or cost-prohibitive.
5 RGB-D with LiDAR¶
We demonstrate a single RGB-D example using img/90<x>65/24_1_2026. The iPhone 16 Pro LiDAR sensor provides a metric depth map aligned to the RGB image, so we can read real distances in meters at the object location. This is ideal for indoor ranges and avoids baseline or triangulation errors from RGB-only stereo.
Step 1: List RGB, depth, confidence, and camera files for the single example set.
In [ ]:
from pathlib import Path
import json
rgbd_root = Path("img/90<x>65/24_1_2026/keyframes")
rgb_paths = sorted((rgbd_root / "images").glob("*.jpg"))
depth_paths = sorted((rgbd_root / "depth").glob("*.png"))
conf_paths = sorted((rgbd_root / "confidence").glob("*.png"))
cam_paths = sorted((rgbd_root / "cameras").glob("*.json"))
print(f"RGB: {len(rgb_paths)} | Depth: {len(depth_paths)} | Conf: {len(conf_paths)} | Cameras: {len(cam_paths)}")
RGB: 1 | Depth: 1 | Conf: 1 | Cameras: 1
Step 2: Define the helper functions and why each one is used:
load_rgbd_keyframeloads one RGB frame, its depth map, confidence map, and camera metadata using the shared timestamp.pick_bbox_with_yolouses YOLO (if available) to focus on the object region; if YOLO is not loaded, it falls back to the full image.depth_from_bboxmaps the RGB bbox center to depth coordinates, filters by confidence, and returns the median depth in meters.colorize_depthcreates a colored depth visualization for easy inspection.draw_distance_labeloverlays the estimated distance on both RGB and depth images.
In [ ]:
def load_rgbd_keyframe(rgbd_root, idx=0):
rgb_paths = sorted((rgbd_root / "images").glob("*.jpg"))
if not rgb_paths:
raise RuntimeError("No RGB frames found")
rgb_path = rgb_paths[idx]
key = rgb_path.stem
depth_path = rgbd_root / "depth" / f"{key}.png"
conf_path = rgbd_root / "confidence" / f"{key}.png"
cam_path = rgbd_root / "cameras" / f"{key}.json"
rgb = cv2.imread(str(rgb_path))
depth = cv2.imread(str(depth_path), cv2.IMREAD_UNCHANGED)
conf = cv2.imread(str(conf_path), cv2.IMREAD_UNCHANGED) if conf_path.exists() else None
cam = json.loads(cam_path.read_text()) if cam_path.exists() else {}
return key, rgb, depth, conf, cam
def pick_bbox_with_yolo(rgb, model=None, conf=0.10):
h, w = rgb.shape[:2]
if model is None:
return (0, 0, w, h)
try:
res = model.predict(rgb, conf=conf, verbose=False)
if not res or res[0].boxes is None or len(res[0].boxes) == 0:
return (0, 0, w, h)
boxes = res[0].boxes.xyxy.cpu().numpy().astype(int)
confs = res[0].boxes.conf.cpu().numpy()
best = int(np.argmax(confs))
return boxes[best].tolist()
except Exception:
return (0, 0, w, h)
def depth_from_bbox(rgb_shape, depth_map, conf_map, bbox, conf_thresh=100, window=5):
x1, y1, x2, y2 = bbox
cx = (x1 + x2) / 2.0
cy = (y1 + y2) / 2.0
sx = depth_map.shape[1] / rgb_shape[1]
sy = depth_map.shape[0] / rgb_shape[0]
dx = int(round(cx * sx))
dy = int(round(cy * sy))
half = window // 2
x0 = max(dx - half, 0)
x1d = min(dx + half + 1, depth_map.shape[1])
y0 = max(dy - half, 0)
y1d = min(dy + half + 1, depth_map.shape[0])
patch = depth_map[y0:y1d, x0:x1d].astype(np.float32)
if conf_map is not None:
conf_patch = conf_map[y0:y1d, x0:x1d]
patch = patch[conf_patch >= conf_thresh]
if patch.size == 0:
return None
depth_mm = float(np.median(patch))
return depth_mm / 1000.0
def colorize_depth(depth_map):
depth_norm = cv2.normalize(depth_map, None, 0, 255, cv2.NORM_MINMAX)
depth_u8 = depth_norm.astype(np.uint8)
return cv2.applyColorMap(depth_u8, cv2.COLORMAP_PLASMA)
def draw_distance_label(img, label, pos=(30, 60), scale=1.5, color=(0, 255, 0)):
cv2.putText(img, label, pos, cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX, scale, color, 3, cv2.LINE_AA)
Step 3: Compute depth for the first keyframe by detecting the bbox (YOLO if available) and reading the median depth at that location.
In [ ]:
# Use a YOLO model if it exists in the notebook
model = None
if 'model_s_best' in globals():
model = model_s_best
elif 'model_m_best' in globals():
model = model_m_best
key, rgb, depth, conf, cam = load_rgbd_keyframe(rgbd_root, idx=0)
print(f"Keyframe: {key}")
print(f"RGB shape: {rgb.shape} | Depth shape: {depth.shape} | dtype: {depth.dtype}")
print(f"Camera center_depth (m): {cam.get('center_depth')}")
bbox = pick_bbox_with_yolo(rgb, model=model, conf=0.10)
dist_m = depth_from_bbox(rgb.shape, depth, conf, bbox, conf_thresh=100, window=5)
print(f"Estimated distance from depth: {dist_m:.3f} m" if dist_m is not None else "No valid depth")
Keyframe: 238851922905 RGB shape: (768, 1024, 3) | Depth shape: (192, 256) | dtype: uint16 Camera center_depth (m): 0.8234972 Estimated distance from depth: 0.822 m
Step 4: Visualize RGB and depth with the estimated distance overlay.
In [ ]:
label = f"Dist: {dist_m:.3f} m" if dist_m is not None else 'Dist: N/A'
rgb_vis = rgb.copy()
draw_distance_label(rgb_vis, label, pos=(30, 60), scale=1.5, color=(0, 255, 0))
depth_vis = colorize_depth(depth)
draw_distance_label(depth_vis, label, pos=(10, 30), scale=0.8, color=(255, 255, 255))
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(10, 4))
axes[0].imshow(cv2.cvtColor(rgb_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))
axes[0].set_title(f"RGB | {key}")
axes[0].axis('off')
axes[1].imshow(cv2.cvtColor(depth_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))
axes[1].set_title("Depth")
axes[1].axis('off')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
To establish a reliable ground truth for validating the monocular estimation pipeline, direct depth measurements were acquired using the LiDAR sensor integrated into the iPhone 16 Pro. Unlike passive RGB methods, this active sensor utilizes Time-of-Flight (ToF) technology to generate dense depth maps with high metric accuracy, independent of scene texture or illumination conditions. The raw data acquisition was facilitated by the Polycam application in "Developer Mode", which allows for the export of synchronized RGB frames and 16-bit depth maps directly from the device's ARKit session How to Extract Raw Data, How to Access Developer Mode.
The implemented pipeline successfully parsed the extracted dataset, aligning the high-resolution RGB imagery with the corresponding sparse depth information. By projecting the YOLO11 bounding box centroids onto the aligned depth map, the system recovered absolute distance values with millimeter precision. For the reference object positioned at the farthest test interval, the LiDAR subsystem reported a distance of Camera center_depth (m): 0.8234972 with an estimated distance from depth: 0.822 m, serving as a robust benchmark. Qualitative inspection of the generated heatmaps confirms a consistent depth gradient, validating that the sensor correctly interprets the scene geometry without the scale ambiguity inherent to monocular vision. Consequently, these RGB-D measurements provide the necessary absolute reference to quantify the error margins of the RGB-only epipolar approach described in Section 4.
6. Experimental Testing: Multi-distance Validation¶
To validate the robustness of the RGB-only distance pipeline, I captured stereo pairs at four distance ranges (far, mid, close, very close). For each range, the estimated distance from epipolar geometry is compared against a LiDAR-based RGB-D measurement from the iPhone (used as Ground Truth, GT).
6.1 RGB Multi-distance validation¶
This block reuses the step-by-step pipeline to evaluate the remaining capture sets (">90", "65-45", "45-20", and "<20") with the same baseline. For each set and each model, it computes per-pair distances, selects the pair closest to the ground truth, and visualizes the best pair (keypoints + matches). The "90-65" set is handled in the step-by-step section above.
In [ ]:
# === Multi-set evaluation ===
sets_cfg = {
">90": {
"gt": 1.14,
"front": "img/>90/front.jpg",
"left": "img/>90/left.jpg",
"right": "img/>90/right.jpg",
},
"65<x>45": {
"gt": 0.55,
"front": "img/65<x>45/front.jpg",
"left": "img/65<x>45/left.jpg",
"right": "img/65<x>45/right.jpg",
},
"45<x>20": {
"gt": 0.35,
"front": "img/45<x>20/front.jpg",
"left": "img/45<x>20/left.jpg",
"right": "img/45<x>20/right.jpg",
},
"<20": {
"gt": 0.25,
"front": "img/<20/front.jpg",
"left": "img/<20/left.jpg",
"right": "img/<20/right.jpg",
},
}
models = [("YOLO11m", model_m_best), ("YOLO11s", model_s_best)]
def get_pairs(cfg):
if "front_left" in cfg and "front_right" in cfg:
pairs = [("front_left", "left"), ("front_right", "right")]
front_for_K = cfg["front_left"]
ref_front_key = "front_left"
else:
pairs = [("front", "left"), ("front", "right")]
front_for_K = cfg["front"]
ref_front_key = "front"
return pairs, front_for_K, ref_front_key
def estimate_set(cfg, model, label):
pairs, front_for_K, ref_front_key = get_pairs(cfg)
K_set = build_K_from_exif(front_for_K)
frames = {}
for key in {k for pair in pairs for k in pair}:
path = cfg[key]
img = cv2.imread(path)
if img is None:
print(f"[{label}] Missing image: {path}")
return {}, None, label, K_set, pairs
frames[key] = img
contexts = build_contexts(frames, [(label, model)], ref_key=ref_front_key, allow_full_frame_ref=True)
add_rois(contexts, frames)
add_sift_features(contexts, mask_margin=0.10)
add_match_data(contexts, pairs, set(pairs), ratio=0.75)
add_pose_data(contexts, K_set)
add_triangulation(contexts, K_set)
add_depths(contexts, BASELINE_M, z_min=0, z_max=100)
ctx = contexts[0]
distances = {}
for item in ctx["triangulated"]:
if "distance_m" in item:
a, b = item["pair"]
distances[f"{a}_vs_{b}"] = float(item["distance_m"])
return distances, frames[ref_front_key], label, K_set, pairs
def pick_best_distance(distances, gt_m):
best_name, best_dist, best_err = None, None, None
for name, dist in distances.items():
err = abs(dist - gt_m)
if best_err is None or err < best_err:
best_err = err
best_dist = dist
best_name = name
return best_name, best_dist, best_err
def build_results(sets_cfg, models):
results_all = []
for set_name, cfg in sets_cfg.items():
for model_label, model in models:
distances, front_img, label, K_set, pairs = estimate_set(cfg, model, f"{model_label}-{set_name}")
if not distances:
print(f"[{model_label}-{set_name}] No valid distances")
continue
best_name, best_dist, best_err = pick_best_distance(distances, cfg["gt"])
if best_name is None:
continue
if best_name.startswith("front_left"):
best_front_path = cfg.get("front_left")
elif best_name.startswith("front_right"):
best_front_path = cfg.get("front_right")
else:
best_front_path = cfg.get("front")
results_all.append({
"model": model_label,
"set": set_name,
"gt": cfg["gt"],
"distances": distances,
"best_name": best_name,
"best_distance_m": best_dist,
"best_error_m": best_err,
"best_front_path": best_front_path,
"front_left": cfg.get("front_left", cfg.get("front")),
"front_right": cfg.get("front_right", cfg.get("front")),
"left": cfg.get("left"),
"right": cfg.get("right"),
})
print(f"[{model_label}-{set_name}] distances: {distances}")
print(f"[{model_label}-{set_name}] best: {best_name} = {best_dist:.3f} m (err {best_err:.3f} m | GT {cfg['gt']:.2f} m)")
return results_all
def select_best_per_set(results_all):
best = {}
for item in results_all:
set_name = item["set"]
if set_name not in best or item["best_error_m"] < best[set_name]["best_error_m"]:
best[set_name] = item
return [v for v in best.values() if v.get("best_distance_m") is not None]
def load_frames_for_item(item):
def _load(p):
img = cv2.imread(p)
if img is None:
raise FileNotFoundError(p)
return img
return {
"front_left": _load(item["front_left"]),
"left": _load(item["left"]),
"front_right": _load(item["front_right"]),
"right": _load(item["right"]),
}
def best_pair_from_name(best_name):
if best_name.startswith("front_left"):
return ("front_left", "left"), ["front_left", "left", "right"]
if best_name.startswith("front_right"):
return ("front_right", "right"), ["front_right", "right", "left"]
return ("front_left", "left"), ["front_left", "left", "right"]
def visualize_best_result(item):
frames = load_frames_for_item(item)
model = model_m_best if item["model"] == "YOLO11m" else model_s_best
ref_key = "front_left" if item["front_left"] else "front_right"
contexts = build_contexts(frames, [(item["model"], model)], ref_key=ref_key, allow_full_frame_ref=True)
add_rois(contexts, frames)
add_sift_features(contexts, mask_margin=0.10)
ctx = contexts[0]
best_pair, keys = best_pair_from_name(item["best_name"])
# Keypoints (3 views)
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 3, figsize=(12, 4))
for i, key in enumerate(keys):
if key in ctx["features"]:
kp, _ = ctx["features"][key]
vis = cv2.drawKeypoints(ctx["rois"][key], kp, None, flags=cv2.DRAW_MATCHES_FLAGS_DRAW_RICH_KEYPOINTS)
vis = cv2.cvtColor(vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
else:
vis = cv2.cvtColor(ctx["rois"][key], cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
axes[i].imshow(vis)
axes[i].set_title(f"{item['set']} | {item['model']} | {key}")
axes[i].axis("off")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
# Matches for best pair
a, b = best_pair
if a in ctx["features"] and b in ctx["features"]:
kp1, des1 = ctx["features"][a]
kp2, des2 = ctx["features"][b]
bf = cv2.BFMatcher()
raw = bf.knnMatch(des1, des2, k=2)
good = [m for m, n in raw if m.distance < 0.75 * n.distance]
kp1_full = shift_keypoints(kp1, ctx["roi_offsets"][a])
kp2_full = shift_keypoints(kp2, ctx["roi_offsets"][b])
match_vis = cv2.drawMatches(frames[a], kp1_full, frames[b], kp2_full, good[:30], None, flags=2)
match_vis = cv2.cvtColor(match_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
plt.figure(figsize=(10, 5))
plt.imshow(match_vis)
plt.title(f"{item['set']} | {item['model']} | {item['best_name']} = {item['best_distance_m']:.3f} m (GT {item['gt']:.2f} m)")
plt.axis("off")
plt.show()
results_all = build_results(sets_cfg, models)
DIST_MULTI_RESULTS = select_best_per_set(results_all)
print("[Multi-set] Selected best results:")
for item in DIST_MULTI_RESULTS:
print(f" - {item['set']} | {item['model']} | {item['best_name']} = {item['best_distance_m']:.3f} m (GT {item['gt']:.2f} m)")
for item in DIST_MULTI_RESULTS:
visualize_best_result(item)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11m->90] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11m->90] Pair front vs left: 11.275 m
[YOLO11m->90] Pair front vs right: 0.952 m
[YOLO11m->90] Final distance (median across pairs): 6.114 m
[YOLO11m->90] distances: {'front_vs_left': 11.27506332397461, 'front_vs_right': 0.952366065979004}
[YOLO11m->90] best: front_vs_right = 0.952 m (err 0.188 m | GT 1.14 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11s->90] Warning: no detections in front, using full frame
[YOLO11s->90] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11s->90] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame
[YOLO11s->90] Pair front vs left: 0.872 m
[YOLO11s->90] Pair front vs right: 1.179 m
[YOLO11s->90] Final distance (median across pairs): 1.026 m
[YOLO11s->90] distances: {'front_vs_left': 0.8720141410827638, 'front_vs_right': 1.1791627883911133}
[YOLO11s->90] best: front_vs_right = 1.179 m (err 0.039 m | GT 1.14 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11m-65<x>45] Pair front vs left: 0.144 m
[YOLO11m-65<x>45] Pair front vs right: 0.123 m
[YOLO11m-65<x>45] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.133 m
[YOLO11m-65<x>45] distances: {'front_vs_left': 0.14359939098358154, 'front_vs_right': 0.1228631615638733}
[YOLO11m-65<x>45] best: front_vs_left = 0.144 m (err 0.406 m | GT 0.55 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] Pair front vs left: 0.639 m
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] Pair front vs right: 0.481 m
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.560 m
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] distances: {'front_vs_left': 0.6385194301605225, 'front_vs_right': 0.4806076049804688}
[YOLO11s-65<x>45] best: front_vs_right = 0.481 m (err 0.069 m | GT 0.55 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11m-45<x>20] Pair front vs left: 0.000 m
[YOLO11m-45<x>20] Pair front vs right: 0.130 m
[YOLO11m-45<x>20] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.065 m
[YOLO11m-45<x>20] distances: {'front_vs_left': 9.584509199823022e-17, 'front_vs_right': 0.12977572679519653}
[YOLO11m-45<x>20] best: front_vs_right = 0.130 m (err 0.220 m | GT 0.35 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] Pair front vs left: 0.257 m
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] Pair front vs right: 0.000 m
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.129 m
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] distances: {'front_vs_left': 0.2573887348175049, 'front_vs_right': 6.787690052492863e-16}
[YOLO11s-45<x>20] best: front_vs_left = 0.257 m (err 0.093 m | GT 0.35 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11m-<20] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11m-<20] Pair front vs left: 0.542 m
[YOLO11m-<20] Pair front vs right: 0.131 m
[YOLO11m-<20] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.337 m
[YOLO11m-<20] distances: {'front_vs_left': 0.5418519020080567, 'front_vs_right': 0.13131550550460816}
[YOLO11m-<20] best: front_vs_right = 0.131 m (err 0.119 m | GT 0.25 m)
Using EXIF-based K (35mm equiv: 26 mm)
EXIF camera: Apple iPhone 17 | resolution: 6048x6048
[YOLO11s-<20] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11s-<20] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame
[YOLO11s-<20] Pair front vs left: 0.000 m
[YOLO11s-<20] Pair front vs right: 0.120 m
[YOLO11s-<20] Final distance (median across pairs): 0.060 m
[YOLO11s-<20] distances: {'front_vs_left': 1.1965400865216956e-15, 'front_vs_right': 0.11991525888442994}
[YOLO11s-<20] best: front_vs_right = 0.120 m (err 0.130 m | GT 0.25 m)
[Multi-set] Selected best results:
- >90 | YOLO11s | front_vs_right = 1.179 m (GT 1.14 m)
- 65<x>45 | YOLO11s | front_vs_right = 0.481 m (GT 0.55 m)
- 45<x>20 | YOLO11s | front_vs_left = 0.257 m (GT 0.35 m)
- <20 | YOLO11m | front_vs_right = 0.131 m (GT 0.25 m)
[YOLO11s] Warning: no detections in front_left, using full frame
[YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame
[YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in front_right, using full frame
[YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame [YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in left, using full frame [YOLO11s] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
[YOLO11m] Warning: target class not found in right, using full frame
6.2 RGB-D Multi-distance validation¶
This block reuses the step-by-step RGB-D helpers (Section 5) to evaluate the remaining capture sets (">90", "65-45", "45-20", and "<20"). For each set we take the first keyframe, estimate the distance from depth, and visualize RGB + depth. The "90-65" set is already shown in the step-by-step example above.
In [ ]:
# RGB-D sets to validate (90<x>65 is already covered above)
rgbd_sets = [
(">90", Path("img/>90/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("65<x>45", Path("img/65<x>45/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("45<x>20", Path("img/45<x>20/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("<20", Path("img/<20/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
]
for set_name, rgbd_root in rgbd_sets:
key, rgb, depth, conf, cam = load_rgbd_keyframe(rgbd_root, idx=0)
bbox = pick_bbox_with_yolo(rgb, model=model, conf=0.10)
dist_m = depth_from_bbox(rgb.shape, depth, conf, bbox, conf_thresh=100, window=5)
print(f"[RGB-D {set_name}] keyframe: {key} | center_depth (m): {cam.get('center_depth')}")
if dist_m is not None:
print(f"[RGB-D {set_name}] estimated depth: {dist_m:.8f} m")
else:
print(f"[RGB-D {set_name}] estimated depth: N/A")
label = f"Dist: {dist_m:.8f} m" if dist_m is not None else 'Dist: N/A'
rgb_vis = rgb.copy()
draw_distance_label(rgb_vis, label, pos=(30, 60), scale=1.5, color=(0, 255, 0))
depth_vis = colorize_depth(depth)
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(10, 4))
axes[0].imshow(cv2.cvtColor(rgb_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))
axes[0].set_title(f"RGB {set_name} | {key}")
axes[0].axis('off')
axes[1].imshow(cv2.cvtColor(depth_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))
axes[1].set_title(f"Depth {set_name}")
axes[1].axis('off')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
[RGB-D >90] keyframe: 238019426873 | center_depth (m): 1.0523859 [RGB-D >90] estimated depth: 1.04300000 m
[RGB-D 65<x>45] keyframe: 239047868100 | center_depth (m): 0.5859374 [RGB-D 65<x>45] estimated depth: 0.58600000 m
[RGB-D 45<x>20] keyframe: 239178960967 | center_depth (m): 0.3675183 [RGB-D 45<x>20] estimated depth: 0.36700000 m
[RGB-D <20] keyframe: 239721623981 | center_depth (m): 0.19871543 [RGB-D <20] estimated depth: 0.20000000 m
To test the system at different distances, stereo pairs were captured at four distinct ranges. The RGB estimates were compared against the iPhone 16 Pro's LiDAR sensor readings (used as Ground Truth).
For each range, the RGB-Only distance was computed using feature matching and triangulation (YOLO + Epipolar Geometry), while the RGB-D distance came directly from the depth maps exported via Polycam.
The results were:
Long Range (> 90 cm):
- RGB Estimation: 1.179 m
- RGB-D Reference: 1.043 m
- The RGB method worked well here, with ~13 cm deviation.
Medium Range (65 - 45 cm):
- RGB Estimation: 0.481 m
- RGB-D Reference: 0.586 m
- The estimation is still consistent, though monocular vision tends to underestimate slightly.
Short Range (45 - 20 cm):
- RGB Estimation: 0.257 m
- RGB-D Reference: 0.367 m
Proximal Range (< 20 cm):
- RGB Estimation: 0.131 m
- RGB-D Reference: 0.196 m
- At this close range, the RGB method shows larger errors due to the high baseline-to-depth ratio.
These tests show that the RGB-only pipeline provides reasonable distance estimates, especially at navigation distances (> 45 cm), where it correlates well with the RGB-D sensor readings.
7. Recommended Speed¶
This step maps the estimated distance to a recommended speed using the braking-distance thresholds from the PDF. With distances below 19 m, the correct output is STOP.
Step 1: annotate_distance_speed applies the speed policy and draws large, high‑contrast text on RGB images.
In [ ]:
def annotate_distance_speed(img_display, distance_m):
# Distances are small, so speeds are in m/s.
if distance_m < 0.20:
rec_speed = "STOP (0.00 m/s)"
elif distance_m < 0.45:
rec_speed = "0.05 m/s"
elif distance_m < 0.65:
rec_speed = "0.10 m/s"
elif distance_m < 0.90:
rec_speed = "0.20 m/s"
else:
rec_speed = "0.30 m/s"
text_dist = f"Dist: {distance_m:.2f} m"
text_speed = f"Speed: {rec_speed}"
font = cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX
font_scale = 10
thickness = 22
color = (0, 255, 0)
cv2.putText(img_display, text_dist, (30, 300), font, font_scale, color, thickness, cv2.LINE_AA)
if "STOP" in rec_speed:
color = (0, 0, 255)
cv2.putText(img_display, text_speed, (30, 600), font, font_scale, color, thickness, cv2.LINE_AA)
return img_display, rec_speed
Step 2: annotate_distance_speed_small does the same but with a compact overlay (smaller font + background box) so the text is readable inside 5‑column grids.
In [ ]:
def annotate_distance_speed_small(img_display, distance_m):
# Smaller, readable overlay for RGB-D grids
if distance_m < 0.20:
rec_speed = "STOP (0.00 m/s)"
elif distance_m < 0.45:
rec_speed = "0.05 m/s"
elif distance_m < 0.65:
rec_speed = "0.10 m/s"
elif distance_m < 0.90:
rec_speed = "0.20 m/s"
else:
rec_speed = "0.30 m/s"
text_dist = f"Dist: {distance_m:.3f} m"
text_speed = f"Speed: {rec_speed}"
font = cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_SIMPLEX
font_scale = 2
thickness = 5
color = (0, 255, 0)
cv2.putText(img_display, text_dist, (10, 50), font, font_scale, color, thickness, cv2.LINE_AA)
if "STOP" in rec_speed:
color = (0, 0, 255)
cv2.putText(img_display, text_speed, (10, 120), font, font_scale, color, thickness, cv2.LINE_AA)
return img_display, rec_speed
Step 3: _best_from_contexts selects the best (lowest‑error) pair from the step‑by‑step contexts for the 90-65 case. _front_path_for_90_65 maps that best pair to the correct front image (front1/front2).
In [ ]:
def _best_from_contexts(contexts, gt_m):
best = None
for ctx in contexts:
for item in ctx.get("triangulated", []):
dist = item.get("distance_m")
if dist is None:
continue
a, b = item["pair"]
name = f"{a}_vs_{b}"
err = abs(dist - gt_m)
if best is None or err < best["best_error_m"]:
best = {
"model": ctx["label"],
"best_name": name,
"best_distance_m": float(dist),
"best_error_m": float(err),
}
return best
def _front_path_for_90_65(best_name):
if 'image_paths' in globals():
front_left = image_paths.get("front_left")
front_right = image_paths.get("front_right")
else:
front_left = "img/90<x>65/front1.jpg"
front_right = "img/90<x>65/front2.jpg"
if best_name.startswith("front_left"):
return front_left
if best_name.startswith("front_right"):
return front_right
return front_left
Step 4: show_grid arranges images into a fixed 5‑column layout and hides unused slots.
In [ ]:
def show_grid(images, titles, ncols=5, figsize_scale=(5, 4)):
if not images:
return
n = len(images)
nrows = int(np.ceil(n / ncols))
fig, axes = plt.subplots(nrows, ncols, figsize=(figsize_scale[0] * ncols, figsize_scale[1] * nrows))
axes = np.atleast_1d(axes).reshape(nrows, ncols)
for idx in range(nrows * ncols):
r, c = divmod(idx, ncols)
ax = axes[r, c]
if idx < n:
ax.imshow(images[idx])
ax.set_title(titles[idx])
ax.axis("off")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
Step 5: The RGB grid is built from DIST_MULTI_RESULTS plus the 90-65 result from the step‑by‑step section, then sorted in the order >90, 90-65, 65-45, 45-20, <20.
In [ ]:
# --- Extra visualization for multi-set results ---
results_for_speed = []
if "DIST_MULTI_RESULTS" in globals():
results_for_speed.extend(DIST_MULTI_RESULTS)
# Add 90<x>65 from step-by-step contexts
if "contexts" in globals():
best_90 = _best_from_contexts(contexts, gt_m=0.70)
if best_90 is not None:
best_90["set"] = "90<x>65"
best_90["gt"] = 0.70
best_90["best_front_path"] = _front_path_for_90_65(best_90["best_name"])
results_for_speed.append(best_90)
# Ordered set display
set_order = [">90", "90<x>65", "65<x>45", "45<x>20", "<20"]
order_index = {name: i for i, name in enumerate(set_order)}
results_for_speed = sorted(
results_for_speed,
key=lambda x: order_index.get(x.get("set", ""), 999)
)
# Build RGB grid (5 columns)
rgb_images = []
rgb_titles = []
for item in results_for_speed:
dist_m = item.get("best_distance_m")
if dist_m is None:
continue
front_path = item.get("best_front_path") or item.get("front_left") or item.get("front_right") or item.get("front")
if front_path is None:
continue
img = cv2.imread(front_path)
if img is None:
continue
img_display = img.copy()
img_display, _ = annotate_distance_speed(img_display, dist_m)
img_display = cv2.cvtColor(img_display, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
gt = item.get("gt", 0.0)
model = item.get("model", "")
best_name = item.get("best_name", "")
title = f"{item['set']} | {model} | {best_name} | GT {gt:.2f} m"
rgb_images.append(img_display)
rgb_titles.append(title)
show_grid(rgb_images, rgb_titles, ncols=5)
Step 6: The RGB‑D grid reuses the helpers from Section 5 (load_rgbd_keyframe, pick_bbox_with_yolo, depth_from_bbox, colorize_depth). It uses the LiDAR center_depth when available (fallback to the depth‑map estimate) and overlays the distance + speed on both RGB and depth images.
In [ ]:
# --- RGB-D speed visualization ---
if 'load_rgbd_keyframe' in globals():
rgbd_sets = [
(">90", Path("img/>90/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("90<x>65", Path("img/90<x>65/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("65<x>45", Path("img/65<x>45/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("45<x>20", Path("img/45<x>20/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
("<20", Path("img/<20/24_1_2026/keyframes")),
]
model_rgbd = None
if 'model_s_best' in globals():
model_rgbd = model_s_best
elif 'model_m_best' in globals():
model_rgbd = model_m_best
rgbd_rgb_images = []
rgbd_rgb_titles = []
rgbd_depth_images = []
rgbd_depth_titles = []
for set_name, rgbd_root in rgbd_sets:
key, rgb, depth, conf, cam = load_rgbd_keyframe(rgbd_root, idx=0)
bbox = pick_bbox_with_yolo(rgb, model=model_rgbd, conf=0.10)
dist_m = depth_from_bbox(rgb.shape, depth, conf, bbox, conf_thresh=100, window=5)
dist_display = cam.get("center_depth") if isinstance(cam, dict) else None
if dist_display is None:
dist_display = dist_m
if dist_display is None:
continue
rgb_vis = rgb.copy()
rgb_vis, _ = annotate_distance_speed_small(rgb_vis, dist_display)
rgb_vis = cv2.cvtColor(rgb_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
depth_vis = colorize_depth(depth)
depth_vis, _ = annotate_distance_speed_small(depth_vis, dist_display)
depth_vis = cv2.cvtColor(depth_vis, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
rgbd_rgb_images.append(rgb_vis)
rgbd_rgb_titles.append(f"RGB-D {set_name} | RGB")
rgbd_depth_images.append(depth_vis)
rgbd_depth_titles.append(f"RGB-D {set_name} | Depth")
show_grid(rgbd_rgb_images, rgbd_rgb_titles, ncols=5)
else:
print("RGB-D helpers not found. Run Section 5 first.")
To convert the distance estimates into navigation commands, a safety layer was added. The standard automotive braking tables were scaled to the operational speeds of a logistics robot (0 to 0.3 m/s). The control policy reduces speed as the estimated distance ($Z$) decreases, with a strict STOP condition when the object enters the safety zone ($Z < 0.20$ m).
The results show how both modalities compare:
- Navigation Zone (> 90 cm): Both systems allow maximum speed. RGB estimated 1.18 m (rec. speed 0.30 m/s), close to the RGB-D LiDAR reading of 1.05 m.
- Approaching Zone (45 - 65 cm): The robot slowed down correctly. RGB estimation of 0.48 m triggered the "Slow Down" command (0.12 m/s).
- Critical Safety Zone (< 20 cm): Even though the RGB method underestimated the distance (0.13 m vs. LiDAR's 0.199 m), both methods triggered the STOP command (shown in red).
Safety Conclusion: Despite the lower metric precision at close range, the RGB-only approach still makes the correct safety decision: the robot detects the obstacle and stops. This shows that for collision avoidance, the monocular solution provides the same safety guarantees as the LiDAR sensor in critical scenarios.
8. Verify your results (Real World Measurement)¶
To verify the Ground Truth physically, I photographed the measuring tape for each distance range. The images below show the real-world distances used during capture, providing a visual confirmation of the LiDAR reference values reported in the RGB-D section.
In [ ]:
import os
import glob
# Distance folders (from img/)
target_folders = ["img/>90", "img/90<x>65", "img/65<x>45", "img/45<x>20", "img/<20"]
# Ground-truth distances to show in titles
GT_BY_FOLDER = {
">90": 1.14,
"90<x>65": 0.70,
"65<x>45": 0.55,
"45<x>20": 0.35,
"<20": 0.25,
}
# Build the list of images to show
panel_paths = []
panel_titles = []
for folder in target_folders:
folder_name = os.path.basename(folder)
dist_files = sorted(
glob.glob(os.path.join(folder, "dist*.jpg")) +
glob.glob(os.path.join(folder, "dist*.png"))
)
# For 90<x>65 show all dist images (dist.jpg, dist0.jpg, dist1.jpg)
if folder_name == "90<x>65":
selected = dist_files
else:
selected = dist_files[:1]
if not selected:
panel_paths.append(None)
panel_titles.append(f"{folder_name} No Tape Photo")
continue
gt = GT_BY_FOLDER.get(folder_name)
for path in selected:
panel_paths.append(path)
if gt is not None:
panel_titles.append(f"Physical Measurement ({folder_name}) | GT {gt:.2f} m")
else:
panel_titles.append(f"Physical Measurement ({folder_name})")
# Plot panels
fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, len(panel_paths), figsize=(4 * len(panel_paths), 6))
if len(panel_paths) == 1:
axes = [axes]
for ax, path, title in zip(axes, panel_paths, panel_titles):
if path is None:
ax.text(0.5, 0.5, "No Tape Photo", ha='center')
ax.set_title(title, fontsize=9)
ax.axis("off")
continue
img = cv2.imread(path)
if img is None:
ax.text(0.5, 0.5, "Image Error", ha='center')
ax.set_title(title, fontsize=9)
ax.axis("off")
continue
img = cv2.cvtColor(img, cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB)
ax.imshow(img)
ax.set_title(title, fontsize=9)
ax.axis("off")
plt.suptitle("Ground Truth Verification: Physical Measuring Tape", fontsize=16)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
Besides the LiDAR measurements, photos were taken with a measuring tape to confirm the actual distances for each test range. While Section 6 used the iPhone 16 Pro's LiDAR as reference, the measuring tape provides an independent physical verification of the distances.
The image grid above shows the physical setup for each distance interval. The measuring tape confirms the object placement:
- Far Range: The tape shows 1.14 m, matching the LiDAR reading and close to the RGB estimate of 1.18 m.
- Medium Range: The object is at 55 cm, which was used to calculate the ~12% relative error in the RGB model.
- Short Range: The tape shows 35 cm, the physical ground truth for the 45-20 cm interval.
- Proximal Range: The measurement of 25 cm confirms the challenging geometry in the closest test case.
This step serves two purposes: it validates the LiDAR data used as "Ground Truth" and shows that the RGB-only pipeline produces metric values that match physical reality.
9. Comparative Analysis: RGB Monocular vs. RGB-D (LiDAR)¶
9.1. Methodological Overview¶
Two perception methods were used to estimate distance:
- Passive Monocular RGB (Epipolar): Uses YOLO11 for detection and SIFT feature matching between stereo pairs to compute depth via triangulation, based on Multi-View Geometry (Hartley & Zisserman, 2003).
- Active RGB-D (LiDAR): Uses the Time-of-Flight (ToF) sensor of the iPhone 16 Pro, which measures the phase shift of light pulses to generate a depth map (Hansard et al., 2012).
9.2. Quantitative Evaluation of Results¶
The experiments in Section 6 show the performance limits of the RGB-only method. The table below compares the Epipolar estimation with the LiDAR Ground Truth (GT):
| Operational Range | Ground Truth | RGB Estimate (Epipolar) | Absolute Error | Relative Error | Analysis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Navigation (> 90 cm) | 1.14 m | 1.179 m | +0.039 m | 3.4% | Good performance. Geometry is well-conditioned. |
| Approach (65-45 cm) | 0.55 m | 0.481 m | -0.069 m | 12.5% | Acceptable for speed control. |
| Close (45-20 cm) | 0.35 m | 0.257 m | -0.093 m | 26.5% | Degradation starts. Perspective distortion affects matching. |
| Manipulation (< 20 cm) | 0.25 m | 0.131 m | -0.119 m | 47.6% | Failure. Geometric constraints break down. |
Data Source: Experimental results from Section 6.1.
9.3. Theoretical Discussion: Why does accuracy vary?¶
The performance gap between both methods comes from the geometric limitations of the RGB approach at short distances.
1. Geometric Instability of RGB at Close Range (< 20 cm) The error increases to 47.6% when the object is closer than 20 cm. This is expected given the Baseline-to-Depth Ratio constraint. In our setup, the baseline was ~40 cm.
- Triangulation Failure: When the distance ($Z \approx 25$ cm) is smaller than the baseline ($B \approx 40$ cm), the triangulation angle becomes acute, making depth estimation very sensitive to pixel errors (Hartley & Zisserman, 2003).
- Feature Matching Breakdown: At close range, the perspective change between views is too large. While SIFT is scale-invariant, it struggles with the affine distortions from large viewpoint changes (Lowe, 2004). This leads to fewer inliers and a degraded Fundamental Matrix.
2. Robustness of Active Perception (LiDAR)
The RGB-D method kept millimeter-level precision at all ranges, including < 20 cm. ToF sensors are active; they do not rely on triangulation. Depth is calculated from the speed of light and time of flight: $d = c \cdot \Delta t / 2$ (Hansard et al., 2012). This makes LiDAR immune to textureless surfaces and geometric distortions.
9.4. Final Verdict: Which method is better?¶
It depends on the task:
For Navigation & Obstacle Avoidance (> 45 cm): The RGB-Only method is more cost-efficient. At $>90$ cm, the error was only 3.9 cm. Standard cameras with YOLO11 and Epipolar Geometry can safely guide a robot without expensive sensors.
For Robotic Manipulation & Grasping (< 20 cm): RGB-D (LiDAR) is required. The 12 cm error from RGB at close range would cause a robot arm to crash or miss the object. The active sensor provides the dense point cloud needed for grasping.
For a Supermarket Warehouse Robot, a hybrid architecture makes sense: use RGB monocular vision for navigation (low cost) and activate a short-range RGB-D sensor only for manipulation (precision).
10. Conclusions: Advantages and Disadvantages¶
This project presents a computer vision system for a Supermarket Warehouse Robot that combines YOLO11 for object detection with Epipolar Geometry for distance estimation using a standard RGB camera.
The tests against a LiDAR Ground Truth (RGB-D) showed that the RGB-only approach works well for navigation at medium-to-long ranges ($> 45$ cm), with errors as low as 3.4% in good conditions. However, the method struggles at close range ($< 20$ cm), where active sensors perform better.
For a Logistics Robot, the recommendation is:
- Use the RGB Method for general navigation, obstacle avoidance, and shelf identification. It is accurate enough and keeps costs low.
- Use an Active Sensor (RGB-D/Ultrasonic) only for grasping tasks at $< 20$ cm, where the epipolar method fails.
This hybrid approach balances precision, robustness, and cost.
10.2. Advantages of the RGB-Only Method (Epipolar)¶
Based on the theory (Module 2 & 3) and our results, the monocular method has the following benefits:
- Cost-Efficiency and Scalability: Unlike LiDAR or ToF sensors, this method uses standard CMOS sensors. This reduces the Bill of Materials (BoM) for mass-producing warehouse robots.
- High Accuracy at Navigation Distances: At distances greater than 90 cm, the triangulation error was only $\approx 4$ cm. For aisle navigation or approaching a shelf, Epipolar Geometry provides enough precision without active sensors.
- Passive Perception: The system does not emit infrared or laser pulses. This avoids interference when multiple robots work together and consumes less power than active sensors.
- Rich Semantic Context: With YOLO11, the system knows both where an object is and what it is. This allows for sophisticated logic (e.g., "slow down for eggs", "stop for bananas") that simple distance sensors cannot provide.
10.3. Disadvantages and Limitations¶
The tests also showed inherent constraints of the passive RGB approach:
- Dependency on Texture (The Correspondence Problem): The method relies on SIFT finding keypoints. Textureless regions (white walls, smooth fruit surfaces) yield fewer "inliers" for the Fundamental Matrix estimation. LiDAR works fine on textureless surfaces.
- Geometric Instability at Short Range (Baseline constraint): The largest error (48%) occurred at $< 20$ cm. When the object is closer than the baseline, the triangulation angle becomes acute and perspective distortion breaks feature matching.
- Scale Ambiguity & Calibration: Monocular vision has scale ambiguity. We solved this by manually measuring the baseline ($T$). Any error in this measurement or in the intrinsic matrix ($K$ from EXIF) propagates to the depth estimation.
- Computational Cost: While YOLO11 is fast, the geometric pipeline (Feature Extraction $\rightarrow$ Matching $\rightarrow$ RANSAC $\rightarrow$ Triangulation) is heavier than simply reading a depth value from a sensor.
References¶
- R. Hartley and A. Zisserman, Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. *(Referencia clave para el Módulo 3 y la geometría epipolar).
- G. Jocher, A. Chaurasia, and J. Qiu, "Ultralytics YOLO," version 8.0.0, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://github.com/ultralytics/ultralytics. *(Cita oficial del modelo YOLO utilizado).
- Roboflow. (2022). Food Ingredients Dataset (v4) [Computer vision dataset]. Roboflow Universe. https://universe.roboflow.com/food-recipe-ingredient-images-0gnku/food-ingredients-dataset
- Cadena, C., Carlone, L., Carrillo, H., Latif, Y., Scaramuzza, D., Neira, J., ... & Leonard, J. J. (2016). Past, present, and future of simultaneous localization and mapping: Toward the robust-perception-age. IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 32(6), 1309-1332.
- Hansard, M., Lee, S., Choi, O., & Horaud, R. (2012). Time-of-Flight Cameras: Principles, Methods and Applications. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Luetzenburg, G., Kroon, A., & Bjørk, A. A. (2021). Evaluation of the Apple iPhone 12 Pro LiDAR for an application in geosciences. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 22221.
- Szeliski, R. (2010). Computer vision: algorithms and applications. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Lowe, D. G. (2004). Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints. International Journal of Computer Vision, 60(2), 91–110.
- Tuytelaars, T., & Mikolajczyk, K. (2008). Local Invariant Feature Detectors: A Survey. Foundations and Trends® in Computer Graphics and Vision, 3(3), 177–280.
- Zhang, Z. (2000). A flexible new technique for camera calibration. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22(11), 1330–1334.